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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>EXPERIMENTS IN PRIVATIZATION: VICTORIA'S PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEM</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483347</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper reviews the changes to public transport policy and performance in the state of Victoria, Australia, over the period 1986-1995. Like many other public transport systems in modern Western economies, Victoria's services had deteriorated markedly over the past three decades or so. In the period prior to 1992, when cost containment policies dominated public decision-making, total patronage and usage of the combined system declined, despite the growth of the state's population by more than 2% per annum. The non-urban rail network, for example, was reduced to a cost recovery rate of around 30% even though its route mileage was cut by half. The prognosis for the turn of the century was indeed bleak! In 1992, the change of government was accompanied by a major upheaval and realignment of policy that has completely reversed this trend, both in operational and financial terms. Many of the policy initiatives were borrowed or adapted from British and European experiences or contemporary arguments, but they were often applied with more success than in their original environments. The paper looks at these changes to both the policies and their implementations, illustrating in particular how both the service levels and their financial performance benefited from these approaches and demonstrating how the overseas experience aided in the development of local policy.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
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      <title>STRATEGIC MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT POLICY DEVELOPMENT IN A MARKET ECONOMY: THE NEW ZEALAND EXPERIENCE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483348</link>
      <description><![CDATA[New Zealand has adopted a national multimodal transport policy, with an overall goal of a "safe, sustainable transport system at reasonable cost", where "sustainability" includes concepts of economic, environmental and social sustainability. To achieve genuine intermodal comparison, the air, maritime and rail sectors have been completely restructured in a commercially sustainable framework. The major Land Transport Pricing Study is now examining the implications of a similar approach to managing the roading network, as a development of existing "standalone" road management structures. Using this multimodal commercial base, the Government policy is developing policy options to internalise environmental and safety costs, in order to ensure that users and operators have reliable pricing information to make sustainable decisions within the transport market, and select the best mode for any given purpose. Safety costs have now largely been internalised across the modes, while major development work on a National Vehicle Fleet Strategy is developing policy options for internalising the environmental costs of the road vehicle fleet. Similar work will follow for other modes. This paper examines the main components of multimodal transport policy in New Zealand, and the way in which long-term goals will be transmitted into a market economy.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
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      <title>TOKYO - MODELLING THE IMPACT OF TRANSPORT ON DEVELOPMENT</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483349</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In 1995, Marcial Echenique and Partners Ltd (Cambridge, UK), Marcial Echenique y CIA (Bilbao, Spain) and Appraisal Co Ltd (Tokyo, Japan) collaborated to produce MEMOTO, the MEPLAN model of Tokyo. This computer model represents the whole of the Tokyo metropolitan area, known as the Kanto region, and models the two-way interactions which occur between the development of land use and transport patterns. The model was calibrated for a base year of 1990 and has been used to prepare forecasts of the evolution of Tokyo to the year 2020. This paper discusses the land use model component of MEMOTO which can be used to predict where households, employment and development will locate in response to transport initiatives. It first discusses the theory behind the land use model and the application of this theory to Tokyo. Attention then turns to the key model results in terms of the future evolution of land use and location patterns in Tokyo for both a "business as usual" situation, and a scenario in which a major new radial rail link is introduced.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
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      <title>PROMISING MOBILITY FRIENDLY URBANISATION STRATEGIES: TIME FOR A PARADIGM SHIFT?</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483350</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The spatial planning of activities such as housing, working, facilities and recreation could certainly make a valuable contribution to the realisation of transportation policy objectives. 'Proximity' and 'building near stations' are key principles of current policies in the Netherlands. However, recent developments call for the reconsideration of some of the long term planning principles. It appears that 'good' locations with high proximity are scarce, they sometimes require large investments to open them up to public transport, and they are not always geared to the daily activity patterns of urban inhabitants, who are increasingly spread over a number of urban areas. For this reason, TNO-INRO carried out a number of studies for the Ministries of Transport and of Housing and Planning into potentially successful urbanisation options for the longer term and their transportation consequences. It was concluded that mixed and (to a lesser extent) clustered urbanisation, as close as possible to, or between, existing urban districts and with good connections to high-quality public transport has the most favourable effect on mobility. However, single-core locations, with a certain proximity to only one urban centre, are not always preferable. Especially in the highly urbanised, multi-nodal Randstad region it is recommended to switch to multi-core locations on the axes between the cities, preferably in the form of self-supporting new towns. Either way, the current paradigm of single-core urban patterns (Compact Cities) calls for some reconsideration.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/483350</guid>
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      <title>THE IMPACTS OF TRANSPORT MEASURES ON EMISSIONS AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483351</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper analyses the impacts of the implementation of various transport measures on traffic emissions and energy savings, in the context of the JUPITER project over six European cities. JUPITER is a major emission and energy saving transport project involving the implementation of integrated packages of measures in the cities of Aalborg (Denmark), Bilbao (Spain), Florence (Italy), Gent (Belgium), Liverpool (United Kingdom) and Patra (Greece). The city projects will reduce traffic emissions and energy consumption through changes in the modal split between public and private transport, improvements in vehicle efficiency and use of alternative fuels. The analysis will be based on the application of a spreadsheet model developed by Transport & Travel Research to predict the changes in energy and emissions from the implementation of transport measures. The traffic and meteorological input data is provided by each city participating in the JUPITER project. The prediction model uses a set of equations which reflect the best practice within the present state-of-the-art and produces estimates of fuel consumption, energy consumption, energy efficiency and total emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, particulates, and carbon dioxide. The project evaluation explores not only the effectiveness of the various measures in reducing emissions and energy, but also the potential impacts of extending each of the city projects to cover wider areas and the extent to which the results obtained within a particular European city can be applied to other partner cities.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/483351</guid>
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      <title>SUSTAINABLE CITIES: AN AUSTRALIAN MODEL USED IN THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT PROCESS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483352</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper discusses the concept of sustainability, and shows how it is being applied to settlements in Australia, with special reference to transport. It first describes the characteristics of sustainability, and Australian Government responses to sustainability. The primary goal for a sustainable city is to reduce its use of natural resources and production of wastes, while at the same time making it a better place in which to live. Sustainability indicators are listed for energy and air quality, water and materials and waste, land and green spaces, transport, and human amenity and health. Those for transport include reduced car use per head, decreased share of car travel in the modal split of trips, shorter journeys to work, and more public transport travel per head. In Australia, all large cities except Sydney are expanding, dispersed coastal settlements are booming, and large cities are beginning to turn inwards. The new dynamic in today's Australian car cities, with their dispersed housing and jobs based on car access, may be changing as much from market pressures as from planners, indicating a market-driven trend to sustainability.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/483352</guid>
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      <title>YORK: TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE CITY</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483353</link>
      <description><![CDATA[On 1 April 1996, the English city of York was given its own unitary authority, following local government reorganisation; it was previously partly under the jurisdiction of North Yorkshire County Council. After that, the first step was for York to commit itself to promoting sustainable development and encouraging environment-friendly transport. This was to be achieved through a combination of projects, all sharing the same objectives and purpose: (1) a thoroughly revised Transport Strategy, which sets out York's transport aims; (2) the City of York Local Plan, which shows how development can link with and influence these aims; and (3) the York Transport Package, the main part of a Transport Policies and Programme submission to the Department of Transport (DoT), to demonstrate what can be done on the ground. The Transport Strategy aims to minimise traffic generation and the environmental impact of local transport in several ways. This paper states the order of priority for local transport modes, outlines some local transport policies, and discusses the York Package, whose measures include park and ride, public transport improvements, better facilities for cyclists and pedestrians, safe routes to school, three major road safety and accident reduction initiatives, and car demand restraint. For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/483353</guid>
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      <title>URBAN STRUCTURE AND THE USE OF A CAR: THE CASE OF FIVE SPANISH MEDIUM-SIZED CITIES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483354</link>
      <description><![CDATA[To reduce the need to travel in order to attain a sustainable mobility is one of the main objectives in European cities. Years when transport planning only looked to the supply side are gone and there is a growing feeling that some actions have to be taken from the demand side. Land-use planning as a transport planning tool appears as one of the main chances due to its close relation with urban travel patterns. But in order to adequately implement these policies it is necessary to improve the knowledge of relations between urban structure and modal split. This paper presents the results of a recently finished PhD thesis; its main objective was to analyse urban structure and work travel patterns and the relations between them in Spanish medium-sized cities. Five Spanish cities of different sizes, shapes, densities and spatial distributions of activities were studied. The paper briefly outlines the urban structure and the transport system in the cities studied. Nevertheless, it concentrates on the different use of the car obtained at a zone level according to: (1) location of employment/population-urban centre, suburbs; (2) public transport supply in the area; (3) chances to park; and (4) accessibility to employment/populations, and at a city level to differences in car use according to density, accessibility and car ownership. Finally it concludes with some commentaries referring to land-use planning potential to reduce the need to travel in medium-sized cities drawn from these empirical results.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/483354</guid>
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      <title>TOWARDS A LOCAL SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT STRATEGY TRYING TO TURN IDEAS INTO PRACTICE: A CASE STUDY OF BRENT</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483355</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper examines the challenge to develop a local sustainable transport agenda for the 21st century, and discusses how it has been met by the London Borough of Brent. It first describes some characteristics of Brent, and reports its progress towards Local Agenda 21 (LA21). It then outlines an evaluation of local transport issues by the Centre for Independent Transport Research in London (CILT), including Brent's travel patterns, traffic problems, and practical suggestions about possible transport actions and initiatives. Finally, the paper states some of the key strategic policies and proposals, set out for discussion in Brent's Draft Transport and the Environment Position Statement, and outlines how the Council proposes to involve the local community further. Brent's vision is to achieve an integrated land use and transport system, which raises efficiency, increases the proportion of environmentally friendly journeys, and reduces the need to travel. This will be done through a process of partnership, policy integration, and innovation. Environmental success criteria, called 'indicators', have been identified to measure progress towards LA21 objectives, but targets for them have yet to be set; extensive public consultation about the draft LA21 position statement will follow.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/483355</guid>
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      <title>TRAVEL AWARENESS CAMPAIGNS: TRAVELWISE IN WEST SUSSEX; MANAGING DEMAND FOR CAR TRAVEL (THE INDIVIDUAL'S ROLE)</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483356</link>
      <description><![CDATA[TravelWise is the adopted name given to the County Council's Transport Awareness Campaign which will seek through education and publicity to increase awareness of transport problems; change attitudes towards the car and other forms of transport; generate an acceptance that there is a need to change our travel habits; to generate action aimed at encouraging a more sensible use of cars and an increase in the use of more environmentally friendly modes of transport like cycling, walking and public transport. Since the campaign launch on 15 May 1995, various projects have been undertaken to promote TravelWise, the most recent being a series of public workshops being held throughout the county. In addition, a public attitude survey was conducted in late 1995 at 17 different locations in West Sussex and further surveys, discussion groups and workshops have taken place and are planned. Other measures planned include a schools initiative, staff travel planning and cycling route maps. Public attitude surveys undertaken to date have confirmed that a significant proportion of car users feel that they have some scope to reduce car use, that most drivers feel that this will make a worthwhile contribution to reducing traffic problems and that most respondents support improved public transport. The paper gives a brief outline of the campaign to date, details of some of the research's key findings, the public's reaction to the campaign, impact of the campaign in West Sussex, and draws some early conclusions from the monitoring carried out. It also shows how the campaign has been re-focused and targeted to reflect the findings of the monitoring.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/483356</guid>
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      <title>FREE TO MOVE...?! PSYCHOLOGICAL RESISTANCE AGAINST ATTEMPTS TO REDUCE PRIVATE CAR USE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483357</link>
      <description><![CDATA[An investigation is summarised on how to reduce car use by applying influence techniques based on behavioural science. Congestion and pollution, resulting from excessive car use, can be characterised as social dilemmas defined by two properties: (1) In the short term, each individual receives more benefit from selfish rather than cooperative behaviour, regardless of what others do. (2) In the long term, all individuals receive less benefit if all defect than if all cooperate. For example, car use gives individual drivers immediate benefits, but leads to serious collective problems. In a field experiment in The Netherlands, an attempt was made to stimulate drivers to use their cars more selectively, by providing them with information and feedback about different negative results of their car use. Although attitude changes were observed, the experimental treatments did not change the drivers' behaviour, because attempts to influence car use arouse psychological resistance. Thus the experiment had effects opposite to those intended. Some possible implications for policy making are discussed. For example, the effects of various measures cannot be assumed to be additive.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/483357</guid>
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      <title>DEVELOPING A PEDESTRIAN STRATEGY FOR LONDON</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483358</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper is based on a study carried out by the Metropolitan Transport Research Unit (MTRU) on behalf of the London Planning Advisory Committee (LPAC), to present a case study of how to develop a pedestrian strategy for a metropolitan area with the overall aim of encouraging walking as a mode of transport. As the study was not finalised at the time of writing, some aspects may differ from the published report. This first section describes the role of LPAC and explains the rationale behind a study into developing a pedestrian strategy for London. Section 2 explains the strategic importance of walking in London, whilst Section 3 proceeds to highlight examples of best practice in terms of pedestrian policy within London and beyond, including the result of an analysis of London Boroughs' Unitary Development Plans (UDPs) and Transport Policies and Programmes (TPPs). Ways in which the strategy for walking should be developed are set out in Section 4, with implementation issues explored in Section 5. The final section then sets out the next steps in developing a pedestrian strategy for London and the key conclusions arising from the study.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/483358</guid>
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      <title>INFLUENCING THE EXTENT OF MOTORISED TRAFFIC IN GREAT BRITAIN IN 2006</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483359</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The paper investigates the effects on mileage by public and private transport in 2006 of various measures that have been proposed to restrain the use of the private car. Such restraint might be expected to result in certain environmental benefits, but it is not the purpose of the present paper to argue for such restraint, merely to assess the likely relative effectiveness of the various proposed measures. In order to do this a base 2006 projection for Great Britain was formed with each tested measure being shown as a deviation from this. The base 2006 projection is by no means a forecast. It merely attempts to project the 1985 to 1993 trends through to 2006, whereas it is already known that the government have implemented new policies (for instance the large cutback in the roads building programme and the 5% pa real increase in fuel duties). The two essential elements of the research project were the preparation of a 2006 base projection and the assessment of the likely effects on this of the various policy measures. The project used data from various NTS surveys, as discussed in section 2, to determine trip rates by person type. Projections of population by area type were derived from data supplied by OPCS and their Welsh and Scottish equivalents, supplemented by a breakdown into car available and car non-available persons, as explained in section 3. That section also explains how the trip rates by person type were projected. By combining the populations projections with the trip rate projections, the base mileage projections for 2006 were arrived at.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/483359</guid>
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      <title>THE EFFECTS OF PETROL PRICE INCREASES ON RURAL RESIDENTS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483360</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (1994) called for a doubling of petrol prices over the next ten years, amongst a package of policies aimed at reducing dependence upon the car. Speculation about the effects such a policy would have on rural residents became one of the main arguments against the Royal Commission's recommendation. Opponents argue that rural residents would suffer because they travel more by car, and would find it harder to adapt to using a car less. It is also argued (and generally agreed) that increased spend on public transport would not filter through to benefit rural areas easily or quickly. This research, carried out at Oxford University and funded by the Economic and Social Research Council, and using National Travel Survey analysis, aimed to find out whether this was true, and if it was, what policies could restrain and limit car use growth without impacting on rural residents. It was concluded that while there is a small group of lower income rural residents whose ownership and use of cars is higher than their rural counterparts, income is much closer related to levels of car use, and higher income people in urban and rural areas are accounting for a large proportion of total car mileages. In short, if prices rise a small number of rural residents will be badly hit, but if they do not, mileages will continue to rise. The research then looked at how different deterrent policies were likely to act on different income and geographic groups. It was concluded that the most effective and egalitarian policy would be to use smart cards offering discounts for limited car mileage, with the standard petrol price being much higher than it is now. Those on low mileages would pay roughly what they pay now, while those with high mileages would pay much more.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/483360</guid>
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      <title>A QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF ATTITUDES TO CYCLING IN THE UK</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/483361</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper presents the findings of a study of attitudes to cycling in the UK commissioned by the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) on behalf of the Department of Transport. Set in the context of the Government's Cycling Policy Statement of June 1994 and the more recent announcement of a National Cycling Strategy, the research objectives were to assess current attitudes to cycling and to identify methods of encouraging increased bicycle use. Bicycles are increasingly being seen by the Government as part of the local transport solution, having a central role to play in addressing issues such as pollution, congestion and health. On behalf of the TRL, Accent Marketing and Research carried out qualitative in-depth interviews and thirteen group discussions, including two extended creativity sessions. These were conducted in five towns across the UK with cyclists and non cyclists of varying ages and socio-economic backgrounds. The research of both cyclists' and car drivers' attitudes revealed that one of the main barriers to cycling is not the lack of attraction of cycling per se but the very strong hold that the car has on the way people live their lives today. Other barriers included the danger posed by large volumes of traffic travelling at speed, fears for personal safety and the threat of theft. Potential "push" and "pull" strategies to encourage cycling were investigated in detail to establish which were considered most likely to effect a genuine uptake in cycling.  For the covering abstract, see IRRD 889150.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Jun 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
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