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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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      <title>POUNDING IN ELEVATED BRIDGES DURING EARTHQUAKES AND REDUCTION OF ITS EFFECTS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487422</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Records after severe earthquakes indicate that pounding may cause considerable damage or even lead to collapse of colliding structures.  The aim of this paper is to analyze pounding between superstructure segments of elevated isolated bridge induced by the traveling seismic wave and to propose possible methods for minimizing the effects of collisions.  In the analysis, the isolation of high damping rubber bearings is modeled by proposed nonlinear formulation.  The results show that pounding has considerable influence on the structural response and may lead to the increase of pier reaction forces. The reduction of pounding effects can be achieved by either increasing the gap between superstructure segments, in order to avoid collisions, or by decreasing it to the smallest possible size.  Further analysis indicates that placing additional devices between deck elements with high damping or stiffness properties can prevent collisions and improve the bridge behavior.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487422</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>STANDARD AND INNOVATIVE RETROFIT DETAILS AND NEW CONSTRUCTION DETAILS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487423</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper presents standard and innovative retrofit details which have been used by the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) to retrofit existing highway bridges. It also discusses some innovative seismic details currently being used for new construction of highway bridges resulting from lessons learned from the San Fernando (1971), Loma Prieta (1989), Northridge (1994) and Kobe (1995) earthquakes.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487423</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>A MODEL FOR CONFINEMENT EFFECT FOR CONCRETE CYLINDERS CONFINED BY CARBON FIBER SHEETS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487424</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Most reinforced concrete bridge piers which suffered damage in the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake were designed with the seismic standards of the 1960s in which the importance of ductility of structural components was not considered. Consequently, existing reinforced concrete columns which were designed with the seismic standards of the 1960s and are vulnerable to seismic disturbance require strengthening urgently.  As one of the seismic strengthening methods of reinforced concrete columns, carbon fiber sheet (CFS) jacketing is an attractive method because of its superior workability.  To reflect the confinement effects by the CFS in seismic strengthening, a series of compressive loading tests of concrete cylinders were conducted and a stress-strain model of concrete confined by CFS is proposed.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487424</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>OPTIMAL DESIGN PARAMETERS OF BRIDGE BEARINGS FOR SEISMIC PROTECTION</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487425</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In this paper, optimization of bearings and dampers to improve seismic performance of bridges is studied.  In the first half of the paper, general optimization procedure for seismic response reduction is constructed.  The seismic excitation is modeled by stationary gaussian white noise for the convenience of the analysis, and the expected peak response is expressed in terms of the response spectra by applying simple approximation on peak factors.  Then, optimal design values are derived by minimizing mean square responses of interest.  Following the construction of the general method, optimal design of deck connections and bearings are demonstrated using simple linear two-degree-of-freedom structural models.  Analytical expressions for optimal design values are also developed for these devices. The validity of the proposed optimization procedure and design values are studied using the observed ground motions of the 1941 El Centro earthquake and 1995 Kobe earthquake.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487425</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>PROPERTY MODIFICATION FACTORS AND RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTORS FOR SEISMICALLY ISOLATED HIGHWAY BRIDGES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487426</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The ballot version of the 1997 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design (March 1997) contains a number of modifications and improvements over its predecessor, the 1991 AASHTO Guide Specifications.  Of these, two major changes are (a) the introduction of isolator Property Modification Factors, and (b) the specification of substructure Response Modification Factors that are lower than those of non-isolated bridges.  This paper presents the rationale behind these modifications and some research results that led to the establishment of the aforementioned factors.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487426</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>THE RESTORING FORCE CHARACTERISTICS OF LRB UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF VARIABLE AXIAL LOADS AND ROTATIONAL DEFORMATION</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487427</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In the application of base isolation devices to bridge structures, in most cases the base isolation bearings are installed between the girders and the piers where conventional bearings have been installed.  However, in the restoration of the Hanshin Expressway No. 3 in Benten District, base isolation bearings [lead rubber bearings (LRB)] are installed at the bottom of the columns of the framed bridge structure because of space limitation for the conventional bridge type.  For this type of bridge structure, not only the horizontal deformation, but also the variable axial load and rotational deformation of the LRB take place in the event of a strong earthquake.  It is of great importance to experimentally assess the influence of these effects to ensure the safety of the seismic isolator implementation of this type.  The horizontal restoring force characteristics of LRB-type isolator were investigated by means of triaxial loading tests.  It is shown that the effect of variable axial load is more significant than that of the rotational deformation.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487427</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>SEISMIC VIBRATION REDUCTION OF HIGHWAY BRIDGE BY REAL-TIME STRUCTURAL PARAMETER MODIFICATION (RSPM)</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487428</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A new semi-active control system is considered for a three-span highway bridge seismic retrofitting.  The bridge model is based on the design information of Memphis bridge 502-11D #124/125. The performance criterion includes the relative displacement between superstructure and cap beam and the column base moments. Numerical analysis results show that, with the added real-time structural parameter modification (RSPM) control system, both the relative displacement and the base moment could be considerably reduced.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487428</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>RETROFIT OF EXISTING REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES USING VE DAMPERS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487429</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The extensive damage caused by the Hyogo-Ken Nanbu earthquake has given sufficient warning of the need for enhancement of seismic resistance of existing reinforced concrete (RC) bridge piers through retrofitting.  In this study, a new type of viscoelastic (VE) device was developed to increase the seismic resistance of existing RC bridge piers which typically support the continuous girder.  The effectiveness of such a device was proved clearly.  Firstly, dynamic properties of a VE device were examined.  Secondly, using such a VE device, the response behavior of an RC bridge pier under severe earthquakes was investigated taking the nonlinear stiffness degrading behavior of RC and the frequency dependent behavior of a VE device into account.  Furthermore a parametric study was conducted to clarify the influence of moment capacity of RC pier, VE device parameters and different earthquake acceleration levels on the ductility factor of the RC bridge pier.  It was found that VE devices are able to reduce the ductility demand of existing RC bridge piers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487429</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>ANALYTICAL STUDIES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY DAMPERS FOR STRUCTURAL CONTROL OF BASE ISOLATED BRIDGES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487430</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Base isolation provides a very effective passive method of protecting bridges from the hazard of earthquakes.  The proposed smart isolation system combines the laminated rubber bearing with the device made of shape memory alloy (SMA).  The constitutive law for superelastic material is extended to describe a hardening of the stress-strain relation of SMA at large strain levels.  The smart base isolation utilizes the different responses of the SMA at different levels of strain to control the displacements of the rubber bearing at various excitation levels.  At the same time the hysteresis of the alloy is used to increase the energy dissipation capacity.  The performance of the smart base isolation is compared with the responses of laminated rubber bearing with lead core to quantify the benefits of applying SMA for isolation of elevated highway bridge.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487430</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>RAPID DISASTER RECOVERY: A CASE STUDY FOR BRIDGE REPLACEMENT</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487431</link>
      <description><![CDATA[On January 17, 1994, the northern region of the Los Angeles basin was rocked by a magnitude 6.8 earthquake.  This paper presents a case study of the California Department of Transportation's response to the January 17, 1994, Northridge Earthquake for the replacement of Gavin Canyon Overcrossing. The replacement bridge was redesigned in 20 days and it opened to traffic after 120 days.  This paper is from the perspective of a structural design engineer and may not discuss other important aspects that could play a significant role in the recovery process.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487431</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>AN INTEGRATED MODEL OF BRIDGE PERFORMANCE, HIGHWAY NETWORKS, AND THE SPATIAL METROPOLITAN ECONOMY: TOWARDS A GENERAL MODEL OF HOW LOSSES DUE TO EARTHQUAKE IMPACTS ON LIFELINES AFFECT THE ECONOMY</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487432</link>
      <description><![CDATA[We summarize an integrated model of how losses due to earthquake impacts on transportation and industrial capacity affect the urban economy.  The procedure advances transportation and activity system analysis techniques in ways that help capture the most important economic implications of earthquakes.  Network costs and origin/destination requirements are endogenous and consistent.  Indirect and induced losses associated with direct impacts on transportation and industrial capacity are distributed across zones and economic sectors.  This study of the transportation network is suggested as a template for studying the full range of losses associated with other lifeline impacts.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487432</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>GIS ASSESSMENT OF WATER SUPPLY DAMAGE FROM THE NORTHRIDGE EARTHQUAKE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487407</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The 1994 Northridge earthquake resulted in the most extensive damage to a U.S. water supply system since the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.  Three major transmission systems, which provide over three-quarters of the water for the City of Los Angeles, were disrupted.  Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) and Metropolitan Water District (MWD) trunk lines (nominal pipe diameter >/= 600 mm) were damaged at 74 locations, and the LADWP distribution system required repairs at 1013 locations.  The widespread disruption provides a unique opportunity to evaluate the geographic variability of the damage, the most vulnerable pipelines, and the relationship among damage, transient motion, and permanent ground deformation.  This paper describes how a geographical information system (GIS) was developed for the earthquake response of the LADWP system.  Damage patterns are evaluated for each type of pipeline and related to seismic intensity, measured transient motion, locations of high water table, and locations of permanent ground deformation.  Key factors affecting earthquake damage are discussed.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 20 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487407</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>EFFECTS OF LIQUEFACTION-INDUCED LARGE GROUND DISPLACEMENT ON EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF FOUNDATIONS DURING THE HYOGOKEN-NANBU EARTHQUAKE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487408</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper introduces performances of foundations under a condition of liquefaction-induced ground displacement and investigates the effects of the ground displacements on the earthquake resistance of the foundations.  It also introduces some examples of undamaged foundations even when the surrounding ground largely moved horizontally.  The 1995 Hyogoken-nanbu earthquake caused significant soil liquefaction in an extensive area of reclaimed land in Kobe and its neighboring cities.  The soil liquefaction also induced large ground displacements in the horizontal direction, which resulted in serious damage to buried lifeline facilities and foundations of bridges and buildings. The authors have investigated the liquefaction during the earthquake and the damage it caused to various kinds of civil engineering structures.  They also measured the liquefaction-induced ground displacements in reclaimed lands along the waterfront of Hanshin area by an aerial survey using both pre- and post-earthquake photographs and by referring to the results from field surveys.  Typical examples of damage related liquefaction-induced ground displacements are presented. In addition, the authors discuss the performances of foundations in the area of the liquefaction and large ground displacements, by referring to the foundation types, and seek effective countermeasures to ground liquefaction.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 20 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487408</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>PERFORMANCE OF CORRUGATED METAL PIPE (CMP) CULVERTS DURING PAST EARTHQUAKES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487409</link>
      <description><![CDATA[To evaluate culvert performance during earthquakes, we reviewed reconnaissance reports from six earthquakes and conducted field investigations in areas shaken by three of those earthquakes. Hundreds of corrugated metal pipe (CMP) culverts were in place in areas strongly shaken by these earthquakes.  Lack of reported or observed damage to all but ten of these structures indicate that CMP culverts generally performed very well during the earthquake shaking.  Of the ten damaged culverts, all but one were in areas of ground failure caused by liquefaction or slope instability.  The one culvert not in an area of ground failure suffered minor damage due to increased lateral pressures cracking a head wall and slightly deforming the pipe inlet. Damaging ground failures included embankment penetration into liquefied foundation soils, lateral spread, ground oscillation and slope instability.  Diameters of culverts ranged from 0.45 m to 3.6 m.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 20 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487409</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>SIMULATION OF COLLAPSE PROCESS OF ELEVATED EXPRESSWAY BRIDGES DUE TO THE 1995 KOBE EARTHQUAKE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/487410</link>
      <description><![CDATA[At 5:46 a.m. (local time) on January 17, 1995, the Great Hanshin (Hyogo-Ken Nanbu or Kobe) earthquake hit the Hanshin-Awaji area, Japan.  The damage due to this earthquake was the worst earthquake disaster in Japan since the 1923 Great Kanto earthquake.  Over 100,000 houses and buildings collapsed and many modern civil infrastructures such as elevated bridges of highways and railways, and port facilities, etc., were also heavily damaged.  In addition, fires broke out razing many houses after the quake.  The death toll was more than 6,300 including deaths due to various problems following the earthquake.  Unfortunately, most deaths were caused due to collapse of structures.  To mitigate casualties due to earthquakes, it is important to study the mechanism of collapse of structures during earthquakes.  In this study, using the Extended Distinct Element Method (EDEM), which is applicable to both a composite and continuous medium, and a perfect discrete one, the collapse mechanism of structures during the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake is studied.  Although the phenomena treated in this study were difficult to be simulated by the conventional methods such as the finite element method, the numerical results obtained agree well with the actual earthquake damage.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 20 Jul 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/487410</guid>
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