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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <title>Future bus transport contracts under a mobility as a service (MaaS) regime in the digital age: are they likely to change?</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574944</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The digital age has opened up new opportunities to improve the customer experience in using public transport. Specifically, we see the role of smart technology in the hands of customers as the new rubric to deliver services that are individualised to the needs and preferences of current and future public transport users. This frontline of service delivery has become known as mobility as a service (MaaS) whereby an individual can book a service delivered through a range of possible modes of transport. Variations are bus-based options that include smart bookable ‘point-via-point-to-point’ services that offer options on travel times and fares as well as the continuation of conventional bus services where the market for smart MaaS is difficult or inappropriate to provide (e.g., contracted (often free) school bus services). This paper presents a number of positions that could potentially represent future contexts in which bus services might be offered, recognising that a hybrid multi-modal state of affairs may be the most appealing new contract setting, enabling the design of contracts to be driven by the mode-neutral customer experience, and the growing opportunity to focus on MaaS. We suggest that the adrenal rush for mobility services, however, may not deliver the full solution that supporters are suggesting.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 12:13:44 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574944</guid>
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      <title>Getting off the greenhouse gas: public transport’s potential contribution in Australian cities</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574943</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Australians are one of the world’s highest per capita emitters of greenhouse gases, yet the country’s target for emissions reductions by 2030 remains modest. This paper looks at policy options for Australian cities to deliver faster transport emissions reductions than the national commitment level. The main focus is on an accelerated reduction in emissions from urban road transport, through technological improvements and behaviour changes. Targets are proposed for improved emissions intensities, to bring Australia much closer to US and EU performance expectations. A range of behaviour change measures is then tested on Melbourne and Sydney, the Sydney analysis using MetroScan-TI, an integrated evaluation framework, to explore how behaviour changes might enhance emissions outcomes. The potential contribution of public transport is a particular focus. The paper concludes that, with sufficient political will, Australia could reduce its 2030 road transport emissions to 40% below 2005 levels. This is a much larger reduction than the current 26-28% Australian emissions but is more consistent with longer-term pathways to acceptable carbon budgets.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 12:13:41 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574943</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>The Thredbo story: a journey of competition and ownership in land passenger transport</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574942</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This is a companion paper to Bray, Hensher, and Wong (2017), reviewing developments in public transport institutional reform, contract design and implementation over the past 30 years since the inception of the International Conference Series on Competition and Ownership in Land Passenger Transport (known as the Thredbo Series). Whilst Thredbo has grown to encompass all topics in transport planning, policy, contracting, financing, data, as well as funding; competition and ownership remains the core focus and the 14 conferences to date constitute a unique resource to chart the conversation and state of the art as it has evolved in both developed and developing economies. Discussion is structured around three eras (the early years, turn of the century and recent developments) and six elements of contracting—market arbitration, procurement mechanism, asset ownership, contract design, risk allocation and contract management. What emerges is a shift in interest from deregulated to contracted markets (and back to deregulated to some extent), a renewed focus on institutional performance in line with changing government and community expectations, and an increasing desire to place contracted services within the broader context of land use, well-being and wider economic benefits. Importantly, this paper also covers some landmark ideas which have grown to become key cornerstones of the Thredbo series including the STO (strategic/tactical/operational) framework, regulatory cycles in the bus and rail sectors, as well as trusting partnerships between transport regulators and operators. We conclude with the enduring legacy of the Thredbo series and look with optimism to the future for what the next 30 years of Thredbo may bring to the land passenger transport sector.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:59:19 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574942</guid>
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      <title>Emerging transport technologies and the modal efficiency framework: a case for mobility as a service (MaaS)</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574941</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The land passenger transport sector lies on the cusp of a major transformation, guided by collaborative consumption, next generation vehicles, demographic change and digital technologies. Whilst there is widespread enthusiasm across the community for this nexus of disruptors, the wholescale implications on road capacity, traffic congestion, land use and the urban form remains unclear, and by extension, whether this emerging transport paradigm will bring a net benefit to the transport system and our communities. Some issues include the proliferation of point-to-point transportation, a continuation of universal vehicle ownership, and the demise of fixed route public transport—all envisaged by various industry leaders in technology and transportation. In this paper, we develop the modal efficiency framework, with axes representing spatial and temporal efficiency to illustrate why some of these developments may be geometrically incompatible with dense urban environments. We then investigate three potential scenarios likely to emerge and explain why they may be problematic with reference to this framework. Mobility as a service (MaaS) based on shared mobility and modal integration is then introduced as a sustainable alternative which accounts for the realities of spatial and temporal efficiency. Various models for implementing MaaS are evaluated including the distinction between commercially-motivated models (presently well advanced in research and development), and systems which incorporate an institutional overlay. The latter, government-led MaaS, is recommended for implementation given the opportunity for incorporating road pricing as an input into package price, defined by time of day, geography and modal efficiency. In amidst the hype of this emerging transport paradigm, a critical assessment of the realm of possibilities can better inform government policy and ensure that digital disruption occurs to our advantage.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:59:17 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574941</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Current trends and innovations affecting the potential for a widespread adoption of electric buses: a comparative case study of 22 cities in the Americas, Asia-Pacific, and Europe</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574940</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Electric buses have environmental, economic, and health benefits, which many cities want to achieve by transitioning their fleets. However, the actual worldwide electric bus adoption is geographically uneven and limited in scale, and few studies analyzed what factors can potentially shape a wider adoption. The paper is based on real world experiences, and applies a comparative multi-case study to 22 cities in 14 countries. A common framework is used for analysis, which includes non-reimbursable funds, investment capital, and legal arrangements. Results show that four key factors are shaping the widespread adoption of electric buses. Firstly, public and private grants, which, when dedicated to cleaning the fleet, appears as a strong factor underpinning existing clean bus systems. Secondly, less costly sources of financing can reduce financial risks and enable more adoption, and it is where innovation can happen. Also, innovative ways of structuring contractual implementation effectively connect stakeholders and involve third-party players, which leads to shared and mitigated risks, increased efficiency and improved performance. In addition, some other elements outside of the business model framework also prove to be enabling the adoption of electric buses.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:59:14 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574940</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Multimodal transportation performance certificates (MTPC) for buildings and neighborhoods: comparing methods for benchmarking the effect of built environment on travel</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574939</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The ambition in Europe is to create cities with integrated, multimodal transportation systems where it is easy to walk, cycle or use public transportation. There is extensive research on urban form and travel, sustainability indicators and rating systems for buildings and neighborhoods and there are new mobility apps, travel planners and websites which provide transportation information, track travel behavior or evaluate and benchmark different transportation modes. This paper assesses three methods to measure multimodality: green building and sustainable neighborhood certification and rating systems, websites that benchmark multiple transportation modes and trip generation tools. It also proposes instituting Multimodal Transportation Performance Certificates (MTPC) as a hybrid method. Three Swedish neighborhoods Munksjostaden and Tenhult in Jonkoping and Haningeterrassen in Haninge, Stockholm, are analyzed and the results show that each method produces different, but fairly reasonable results considering their specific scopes and applications. The conclusive MTPC benchmarking procedure aims to harness the best of each method, though it inherits some of their problems.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:59:12 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574939</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Understanding the trip and user characteristics of the combined bicycle and transit mode</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574938</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Several cities around the world are facing mobility related problems such as traffic congestion and air pollution. Although limited individually, the combination of bicycle and transit offers speed and accessibility; by complementing each other’s characteristics the bicycle and transit combination can compete with automobiles. Recognising this, several studies have investigated policies that encourage integration of these modes. However, empirical analysis of the actual users and trips of the combined mode is largely missing. This study addresses this gap by (i) reviewing empirical findings on related modes, (ii) deriving user and trip characteristics of the bicycle and transit mode in the Netherlands, and (iii) applying latent class cluster analysis to discover prototypical users based on their sociodemographic attributes. Most trips by this mode are found to be for relatively long commutes where transit is in the form of trains, and bicycle and walking are access and egress modes respectively. Furthermore, seven user groups are identified and their spatial and temporal travel behaviour is discussed. Transport authorities may use the empirical results in this study to further streamline integration of bicycle and transit for its largest users as well as to tailor policies to attract more travellers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:59:11 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574938</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Level of service and the transit neighbourhood: observations from Dublin City and suburbs</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574937</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Few studies have looked at the impact Level-of-Service (LOS) might have on the distances people walk to public transport. The relationship, if any, has implications for transit-oriented-development and the viability of different transit modes serving suburban areas. This paper examines pedestrian catchment areas and LOS at across a light rail, a metro rail and two bus corridors in Dublin. Over 700 public transport users were surveyed at 17 stops and their trip origin identified. Catchment areas for bus services with high levels of service were found to be comparable and often greater than those for LRT or metro rail. 65% of all bus trip-origins are more than 500m from stops. A standard distance analysis suggests natural catchment limits of over 1400m for high quality bus, significantly greater than light rail and metro rail of similar service levels. The shape of transit catchment areas are also distinctive and appear to be most influenced by: network density, stopping patterns, urban gravity and quality of service. While further analysis is recommended, public transport users in the Greater Dublin Area appear more influenced by level-of-service than by modal type when deciding how far they are prepared to walk to public transport.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:59:09 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574937</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Local public transport in Russia: regulation, ownership and competition</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574936</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This workshop paper is motivated by the evolution of relations between public transport authorities and public transport operators all over the world. So far, however, there has been little discussion about this phenomenon with regard to Russian land passenger transport. This issue only received considerable critical attention in the 1990s in light of the post-soviet transformations. However, developments during the 2000s and 2010s have not been extensively studied. This period is filled with changes in market structure including the rapid growth of the private bus sector while electric transport remained publicly owned and operated. The regulatory policy has also undergone considerable changes in 2015. This workshop paper attempts to understand both positive and negative trends of evolution of organisational practices in Russian land passenger transport. The methodological approach is mixed and based on analysis of changes in legislation, market structure and contracting approaches. Studies of the largest cities, including the recent Moscow ‘new model’, are also performed. The overall structure of the study includes overviews of legislation, the performance of public operators and institutions in the private bus sector. This research offers important insights into the evolution of public transport contracting systems in developing countries.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:59:07 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574936</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>An analysis on institutional preparedness to bus tendering in the context of a fragmented liberalized market: case study of Harare, Zimbabwe</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574935</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In many cities of the developed world, the previously public owned and subsidized bus operators which provided services with minimal exposure to competition have been deregulated. Literature suggests that deregulation especially uncontrolled deregulation has resulted in an unprecedented proliferation of minibus operators, both registered and unregistered. The oversupply of vehicles inevitably leads to a reduction in round trips and reduced profits to operators. In order for operators to remain afloat in business, their drivers have developed dangerous driving behaviors typified by tailgating, picking up and dropping off passengers at undesignated sites, establishing and operating from incidental bus termini (along major roads). This behaviour is both a road capacity and safety concern. In 2012, the Government of Zimbabwe published their first National Transport Policy, which identified route tendering as one option among others, to address some of the operational challenges emanating from a deregulated urban public transport market. The objective of this paper is to interrogate whether the intention to implement bus route tendering augurs well with awareness of what route tendering entails. The following questions will be addressed: What are the views of stakeholders on competitive tendering? What benefits can accrue? What pre-conditions are necessary for the successful implementation of route tendering? Is the prevailing urban public transport institutional framework conducive and prepared for route tendering? These are pertinent questions as the country has no experience of route tendering and there are very few examples in Africa to learn from.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:59:06 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574935</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Financial implications of specifying service quality in public transport service contracts with a large captive user base: the case of South Africa</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574934</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Improved service quality is increasingly acknowledged as critical for increased patronage of public transport services. However, in markets characterised by large proportions of captive public transport users, typically found in developing or emerging economies with low car ownerships rates, the marginal benefits of improved service quality are not apparent. The paper uses historical financial and patronage data from existing bus contracts in South Africa and a conjoint-analysis based behavioural model to estimate the budgetary implications, and marginal benefits, of specifying service quality in public transport contracts, where marginal benefits are defined in terms of nominal welfare benefits to society. It is shown that the marginal benefits of improved service are significant and may outweigh the marginal cost of improved service quality or the business as usual alternative. Practical implications of the findings on contract planning and designs are also discussed in the context of markets with characteristically large proportions of captive public transport users.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:59:04 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574934</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Looking back at 20 years of competitive tendering in the Norwegian bus industry: explaining cost increases and reduced competition</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574933</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Our paper investigates the developments in the Norwegian bus industry following the ramp-up of competitive tendering since the early 2000s. We analyse a complete dataset of all 232 local bus contracts awarded through competitive tendering in Norway since 1995. We also utilize the Central Register of Establishments and Enterprises (CRE) for structural developments in the bus industry. We first present some overall tendencies, including developments in number of bids per tender, contract size and cost developments. The average cost per kilometre has increased substantially more than the general rate of inflation. At the same time, the average number of bidders per contract has fallen moderately but steadily. Second, we build regression models to identify key drivers of cost developments. Contract sizes, in terms of vehicle-kilometres are found on average to be on the low side and an increase would reduce unit prices. We find as expected a significant effect of the number of bidders on unit prices. This leads us to a further investigation of factors explaining the number of bids per tender. We find that larger contracts tend to attract more bids, as do repeated tenders in the same area.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:59:02 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574933</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Experts’ inventory and rating of core performance indicators and organisational features in public transport: a global Delphi survey</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574932</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Discussions involving the connection between organisational form and performance in public transport systems take place for over a century and remain at the top of the agenda in the sector. These analyses indicate that some organisational elements might be important for success in public transport. However, studies usually focus on the impacts of a single policy initiative and results are seldom clear. The analysis of the relationship organisation-performance can benefit from a more comprehensive approach that does not treat variables only in an isolated and incremental fashion, but instead considers performance outcomes as the result of the combined effect of different organisational variables. A first step to allow this broader approach is to get the variables right: What organisational features drive strategic performance outcomes, and what performance metrics are more suitable to measure these impacts? A Delphi survey is developed and, based on experts’ judgement, builds authoritative lists of core performance indicators and organisational features. User Satisfaction and Policy Integration between Public Transport and other government areas emerge, respectively, as highest rated variables.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:59:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574932</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Introducing renewable fuel in public bus transport: challenges and opportunities</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574931</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The differences between type and share of renewable fuel in Swedish public bus transport is large today. A previous study showed that the differences between regions could possibly be related to regional context and choice of strategic approach. Therefore, the aim of this study is to further analyse the strategic approach for implementation of renewable fuel in ten Swedish transport regions, looking at how actors in the regions experience the challenges and opportunities with use of green public procurement as a tool to implement renewable fuels in relation to economical, geographical, organisational and political factors. The findings from this study confirms that functional requirements is the most cost efficient way to introduce renewable fuels, but at the same time it always results in the cheapest fuel, which today is biodiesel. If a region instead wants to create a market for production, use or infrastructure for a fuel such as biogas, they either have to use specific requirements or own the traffic themselves]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:58:59 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574931</guid>
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      <title>Outcomes from new contracts with “strong” incentives for increasing patronage in bus transport in Stockholm</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574930</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The Swedish Public Transport Association (SPTA) has taken initiatives to develop contract recommendations on incentives for increased patronage in tendered contracts. There is, however, currently a small evidence-base for recommendations for how public transport contracts should be designed to provide incentives to achieve the policy goals of the Regional Public Transport Authorities (RPTA). A review of public contracts from the government agency Transport analysis (2015) indicates that the use of patronage incentives so far is modest. The purpose of this study is to take first steps towards creating such a knowledge base by collecting and analyzing the performance in four bus contracts in Stockholm county spanning seven years. The study focusses on a new kind of contract called E20 where 100 percent of the payments to operators are tied to the number of boarding and paying passengers. The study compares the development of the E20-contract areas (formerly independent contracts) with the outcomes in same contract areas before and with two comparison areas covered by gross cost contracts. The stated goals for the E20 contracts are to increase patronage and customer satisfaction as well as to increase efficiency. With the use of available monthly outcome data, the outcomes in the E20 areas (three years) are compared with the period before (four years) and to how the comparison contracts using gross cost contracts have developed.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 17 Dec 2018 11:58:57 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1574930</guid>
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