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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>The feasibility, delivery and cost effectiveness of drink driving interventions: a qualitative analysis of professional stakeholders</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279307</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Many intervention programs have been designed to decrease the rate of drink driving by altering the behavioural characteristics that may lead a person to drink and drive.  However, most programs target high risk and repeat offenders.  There is very little research on the feasibility and effectiveness of first offender programs.  This project is part of a larger program of research that focuses on first time offenders, in order to reduce the rate of subsequent drink driving which may result in a repeat offence.  A number of professional stakeholders were approached and interviewed with a view to capturing and reflecting current drink driving related concerns while developing an intervention in the context of Australian drink driving related legislation.  The qualitative interviews involved open ended questioning which led to the themes discussed in the analysis.  Included in the interviews were senior representatives from the Magistrates Court, Queensland Transport, Probation & Parole, Queensland Corrective Services, Royal Automobile Club Queensland (RACQ), Intraface Consulting (drug & alcohol EAP), Brisbane Police Prosecution Corps, Queensland Police Service and private practice psychology.  Issues such as delivery of interventions, feasibility and cost-effectiveness were discussed, as were potential content and design.  It was generally agreed that a tailored online intervention imposed as a sentencing option would be the most effective for first time offenders in terms of cost, ease of delivery and feasibility.  The development of an online intervention program for first offenders is widely supported by professional stakeholders.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:50:15 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279307</guid>
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      <title>A follow up sample of first time drink driving offenders: how many drink drive post offence?</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279306</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Most of the research on drink driving to date has focused on the hard core offenders - those with high blood alcohol content at the time of arrest, and those who have more than one offence.  There has been little research on differences within the first offender population or on factors contributing to second offences.  This research aims to fill the gap by reporting on those factors in a sample of offenders.  This paper reports on a study that involved interviewing 198 first offenders in court and following up this group 6-8 months post offence.  Of these original participants, 101 offenders were able to be followed up, with 88 included in this paper on the basis that they had driven a vehicle since the offence.  Interestingly, while the rate of reported apprehended second offences was low in that time frame (3 per cent), a surprising number of offenders reported that they had driven under the influence at a much higher rate (27 per cent).  That is a large proportion of first offenders were willing to risk the much larger penalties associated with a second offence in order to engage in drink driving.  Key characteristics of this follow up group are examined to inform the development of an evidence based brief intervention program that targets first time offenders with the goal of decreasing the rate of repeat drink driving.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:50:13 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279306</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Adolescents to adults: a long-term study of impaired driving</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279305</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The aims of the study are: (1) To report the overall rates of impaired driving in mid-adulthood in this sample of men, and (2) To compare the variation in self-reported driving after drinking or drug use based on different items to assess this behavior.  The data are from the fourth wave of the Buffalo Longitudinal Study of Young Men, population-based sample of adolescent men originally recruited at ages 16-19.  Several items were used to assess alcohol-impaired driving, alcohol and drug impaired driving, and drug impaired driving for the 12-months prior to the interview.  For the item assessing driving within two hours of drinking, 49.4 per cent reported this behavior.  For the item assessing driving while feeling the effects of alcohol, 36.2 per cent reported this.  For the item assessing driving after having perhaps too much to drink, 25.4 per cent reported this behavior.  For driving while feeling the effects of a drug other than alcohol, 19.6 per cent reported this, and 10.7 per cent reported driving while feeling the effects of alcohol and another drug while driving. Impaired driving continues at high rates into mid-adulthood.  Driving while feeling the effects of alcohol at mid-adulthood substantially exceeded the 20 per cent rate reported in late adolescence by the same sample.  The items used to measure alcohol-impaired driving obtain significantly different estimates that decrease as the level of implied impairment increases.  Drug-impaired driving occurs at a much lower, but still substantial rate.  Future research will examine complex longitudinal models to identify specific factors associated with the continuation of impaired driving into mid-adulthood.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:50:10 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279305</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Experiences with the application of the hair analysis on ethyl glucuronide in the traffic medicine in Switzerland</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279304</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Since 2008 the medical examination of motorists with alcohol problems in Switzerland includes hair testing for the substance of ethyl glucuronide.  The aim of this study is to work out the position of the hair analysis in Switzerland in the context of traffic medicine.  About 454 cases from the year 2011 are evaluated.  The past medical history and the traffic history are compared with the results of the traffic medicine examination including the hair analyses.  Furthermore the traffic medicine diagnosis and the licensing requirements are listed and evaluated statistically.  266 (59 per cent) from the 454 cases received a positive assessment and 188 (41 per cent) a negative one.  From all the positive assessments about 216 (81 per cent) people could show with the hair analyses that they haven&rsquo;t consumed alcohol at all in advance to the examination.  Otherwise 38 people (20 per cent) of all the 188 negative assessments had no alcohol consumed in the months before the examination, but they received a negative report because of other reasons.  We can show that the hair analysis for ethyl glucuronide is a very important instrument in the traffic medicine examination but not the only one.  The case history, the classic examination and reports from other doctors still are irreplaceable.  In this paper we will present the Swiss system of traffic medicine in motorists with alcohol problems and our experience with the hair testing for ethyl glucuronide in the traffic medicine assessment.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:50:07 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279304</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Putative mechanisms underlying risky decision-making in high risk drivers</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279303</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) is a neuropsychological task that measures two types of decision-making: i) under risk, and ii) under ambiguity.  Investigations using the IGT in groups of high risk drivers (HRDs) consisting of driving while impaired (DWI) offenders suggest that a deficit in decision-making under risk is present in HRDs.  However, the IGT may be measuring broader cognitive dimensions other than decision-making.  Validation of these findings is needed with more direct measurement of decision-making under risk in a more representative sample of HRDs.  It is hypothesized that: 1. HRDs will perform worse than Controls (CTLs) on a task that measures decision-making under risk alone, the Game of Dice Task (GDT); and 2. Decision-making under risk via the IGT will be significantly associated to the GDT.  In preliminary analyses, HRDs did not differ from CTLs in their scores for decision-making under risk on the IGT or the GDT.  Additionally, scores on the IGT were not significantly correlated to scores on GDT.  Exploratory analyses after dividing HRDs according to DWI involvement were done.  Results suggest that HRDs who have not been convicted of DWI perform better on the IGT and GDT compared to CTLs and HRDs who have been convicted of DWI, who are comparable.  Preliminary findings do not support hypotheses.  Given the heterogeneity of HRDs in this study, investigation of HRDs based on DWI involvement may better elucidate the role, if any, that decision-making plays in HRD.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:50:05 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279303</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Exploring the influences of country-level factors on mid-age women's drink driving attitudes</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279302</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Drink driving remains a major cause of serious and fatal car crashes in Australia and internationally.  While this problem is more prevalent among male drivers, the rates of female intoxicated drivers have increased steadily over the past decades in many motorised countries.  While many countries, including Australia, have a legal blood alcohol concentration (BAC) limit of .05 or higher, some countries have moved towards a zero &ndash;or low tolerance approach to drink driving; several European countries, including Sweden, Hungary, Slovakia, and Estonia currently enforce .00 or .02 BAC limits.  The current study aimed to increase the understanding of women&rsquo;s attitudes towards drinking before driving by exploring the impact of country-level differences in BAC-levels and tolerance towards drink driving.  Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a convenience sample of Australian and Swedish mid-aged women, a group that has received little prior research attention.  Thematic analysis explored participant&rsquo;s knowledge and attitudes towards drink driving.  Several key themes were developed from the data including women&rsquo;s understanding of the relationship between alcohol consumption and BAC levels, the effect of alcohol on driving ability, views of the legal BAC limit in each country, cognitive disassociation between alcohol and driving, and the morality and ethical implications of drink driving.  Findings illustrate that women&rsquo;s attitudes towards driving while intoxicated are influenced by country-level BAC and tolerance towards drink driving.  Implications for road safety are discussed.  Future research may expand on the knowledge of women&rsquo;s drink driving attitudes by conducting cross-cultural studies with broader samples of women.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:50:02 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279302</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Was this preventable? [managing drink drive offenders in New Zealand]</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279301</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper critiques the current approach used to manage drink drive offenders in New Zealand and also to compile information on internationally recognised best practice initiatives used to reduce the harm from drink driving.  In New Zealand repeat offending accounted for around a third of the detections and harm caused by drink driving.  Only 5 per cent of detected drink drivers are assessed for alcohol problems.  International research revealed that the use of alcohol ignition interlocks, rehabilitative efforts and Drug Courts reduced instances of drink driving and the harm caused by such behavior.  I compiled this research into a series of papers and provided it to the ministries of Transport, Justice and Health; I also gave evidence to a Select Committee on proposed amendments to the New Zealand Land Transport Act 1998.  The information I provided has helped facilitate the introduction to New Zealand of alcohol ignition interlocks, Drug Courts and more funding for internationally recognised best practice drink driver rehabilitation programmes.  Compilation of peer reviewed evidence on the extent of the problems and possible solutions to drink driving in New Zealand helped inform decision makers on where their efforts were best focused.  The research work continues in the form of a Charitable Trust &lsquo;Researching Impaired Driving in New Zealand&rsquo;.  The Trust will next focus on drug impaired driving and youth drink drivers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:50:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279301</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Effects of untreated rhinitis on actual driving: a patient study</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279300</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Allergic rhinitis (AR), also known as hay fever, affects up to 30 per cent of the adult population.  Treatment of AR is often done with drugs that might also induce somnolence and impair driving performance.  This impairment is however exclusively based on studies with healthy volunteers.  Not much is known on the (combined) effects of AR and drug treatment on driving performance of patients.  The primary objective of this study was to determine the effect of AR per se on actual driving performance and compare it to the effects of AR treated with two types of drugs.  Nineteen patients with documented AR history engaged in a 1-hour on the road driving test outside the pollen season.  In a 4-leg repeated measures design patients underwent a nasal provocation test with a pollen mixture to provoke AR symptoms or a placebo sham provocation.  In the three conditions with pollen provocation patients were pre-treated with either cetirizine, fluticasone furoate or placebo to alleviate the provoked AR symptoms.  The driving performance of patients when symptomatic and not treated with medication was significantly impaired compared to their non-symptomatic performance in the placebo condition.  When engaging in a secondary memory task during the driving task their performance deteriorated further and impairment was comparable to that seen at a blood alcohol level of 0.05 per cent.  Untreated allergic rhinitis can seriously impair driving performance and put AR patients at increased risk, especially when engaging in other activities requiring attention during driving.  Patients with AR should be cautioned that their condition can cause impairment.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:49:58 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279300</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Relationship of binge drinking to illegal BACs among weekend nighttime drivers</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279299</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In the United States the legal (blood alcohol concentration) BAC limit is .08 g/dL (grams per deciliter).  This is the BAC generally produced by &ldquo;binge drinking,&rdquo; defined by the U.S. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) as 4 or more drinks for females and 5 or more drinks for males.  The objective of this study was to confirm this relationship by determining the percentage of drivers on U.S. roadways with illegal BACs who report binge drinking.  The prevalence of binge drinkers among a national sample of nighttime weekend drivers in the United States was determined through roadside interviews with a stratified random sample of 5,983 non-commercial drivers at 60 primary sampling locations in the 48 contiguous states on Fridays and Saturdays between 10 p.m. and 3 a.m.  Forty-nine percent of the nighttime drivers who reported using alcohol also reported binge drinking on at least one occasion in the last year.  They accounted for three-quarters of all the drivers with illegal BACs.  Binge drinkers were four and a half times more likely to have an illegal BAC than non-binge drinkers.  The results indicate that among weekend nighttime drivers who drink, binge drinking is normative and strongly related to having an illegal BAC.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:49:56 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279299</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Recidivism following interlock: any evidence of change?</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279298</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The state of Florida&rsquo;s interlock program, which requires a period of license revocation before installing the interlock, offered an opportunity to study recidivism under three conditions: (a) during the license revocation period before entering the interlock program; (b) while on the interlock; and (c) during the post-interlock period when the offender&rsquo;s license was restored.  This study had two aims: (a) To determine factors associated with the reduction in recidivism for offenders moving from a revoked-license condition to driving an interlock-equipped vehicle, and (b) To determine the factors associated with the rise in recidivism for offenders after the removal of the interlock and the restoration of their license status.  Using Cox regression, interlock program records of 33,446 first-time, impaired-driving offenders in Florida were analyzed as they moved from license revocation to driving on an interlock to postinterlock status.  While their licenses were revoked, the first offenders exhibited a 2.3 per cent annual recidivism rate.  Once they moved on to the interlock program, the annual recidivism rate dropped to 0.4 per cent.  In the 4 years following interlock removal, the recidivism rate returned to the 2 per cent level.  Offenders on interlocks whose time on the device was extended based on poor interlock performance had 4 per cent annual recidivism rates.  The data suggest that the extent to which offenders&rsquo; recidivism rates increase following interlock removal can be identified by variables available to program managers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:49:52 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279298</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Methods for investigating crash risk: comparing case control with responsibility analysis</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279297</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Case-control studies compare all crash-involved drivers with a noncrash exposure group.  In the responsibility analysis procedure, a noncrash-driver control group is not available and the validity of the control group of crash-involved not responsible drivers depends upon the accuracy of the separation of culpable from non-culpable drivers.  In this effort, we examine in detail how different criteria for the inclusion of crash cases influence the accuracy of relative risk (RR) estimates based on BAC.  To do so, we apply responsibility analysis to data collected from a recent crash case-control study where data from matched non-crash involved control drivers was collected.  We found that the RR rate for single vehicle crash (all of whom are viewed as responsible) were higher than RR rate for drivers in multivehicle crashes some of whom were not fully responsible for their crashes.  Finally, the RR rate for drivers judged to be not responsible in multivehicle crashes was below 1.  Our data demonstrated that, as claimed in responsibility analysis, the non-responsible drivers were similar to matched non-crash drivers (e.g. a random sample of exposed drivers).  We also found as expected that responsibility analysis yields higher RR estimates because the crash case group contains only responsible drivers in contrast to the case control method where the crash group includes non-responsible drivers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:49:50 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279297</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, alcohol, drugs and driving: population-based examination in a Canadian sample</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279296</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study examines the relationships among substance use, ADHD, other psychiatric problems, and driving outcomes among a representative sample of adults from Ontario, Canada.  The Centre for Addictions and Mental Health Ontario Monitor is an ongoing repeated cross-sectional telephone survey of adults which includes validated measures of: ADHD; psychiatric distress; antisocial behaviour; substance use and problems; driving outcomes.  This study presents weighted results (descriptive statistics and regressions) of year one data of a 3-year study.  A total of 1999 Ontario residents were sampled, of which 70 (3.5 per cent) screened positively for ADHD.  A significantly greater percentage of those who screened positively for ADHD (8.0 per cent) reported at least one crash in the past year compared with those who screened negatively for ADHD.  Sequential regression analysis found that age, antisocial personality screen and lifetime cannabis use predicted collisions, while ADHD positive screen, substance abuse positive screen and lifetime cocaine use did not.  This first population-based study in Canada showed no relationship between the ADHD screen and collisions when age, sex and kilometres driven are controlled for, while the antisocial personality screen and lifetime cannabis use were significant predictors.  However, these analyses are based on self-report screeners, not psychiatric diagnoses and a small sample.  Thus, these results should be viewed with caution.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:49:47 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279296</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Impairment based legislative limits for driving under the influence of non-alcohol drugs: the Norwegian experience</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279295</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) or alcohol represents an important risk factor for traffic accidents.  For alcohol, Norway has since 1936 practiced impairment based legislation, with a legal limit presently at 0.02 per cent.  For drugs other than alcohol, an individual evaluation of impairment was previously made in each case.  This system was time consuming and expensive, and has probably been practised in a more lenient fashion as compared to alcohol cases.  To harmonize the current practice for driving under the influence of alcohol and non-alcohol drugs, legislative limits were introduced for non-alcohol drugs in Norway from February 1st 2012.  This paper presents the new legislative limits in Norway and status after about 1.5 years&rsquo; experience.  Impairment limits, representing drug concentrations in whole blood likely to be accompanied by a degree of impairment comparable to blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) of 0.02 per cent, were established for 20 psychotropic drugs.  Limits for graded sanctions, representing drug concentrations in blood likely to induce impairment comparable to BACs of 0.05 per cent and 0.12 per cent, were defined for 13 of the 20 substances.  Such limits enable the court to mete out sanctions based solely on the measured drug concentrations, thus reducing the need for expert statements.  After introducing the new legislation, a slight increase in the number of DUID cases has been seen in Norway.  The total number of cases in 2012 was about 8600 compared to about 7800 for the two previous years.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:49:43 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279295</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Instruments for investigating fitness to drive: needs and expectations in primary care: a qualitative study</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279294</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Primary care physicians are often requested to assess their patients&rsquo; fitness to drive.  Little is however known on their needs to help them in this task.  The aim of this study is to develop theories on needs, expectations, and barriers for clinical instruments helping physicians assess fitness to drive in primary care.  This qualitative study used semi-structured interviews to investigate needs and expectations for instruments used to assess fitness to drive.  From August 2011 to April 2013, we recorded opinions from five experts in traffic medicine, five primary care physicians, and five senior drivers.  All interviews were integrally transcribed.  Two independent researchers extracted, coded, and stratified categories relying on multi-grounded theory.  All participants validated the final scheme.  Our theory suggests that for an instruments assessing fitness to drive to be implemented in primary care, it need to contribute to the decisional process.  This requires at least five conditions: 1) it needs to reduce the range of uncertainty, 2) it needs to be adapted to local resources and possibilities, 3) it needs to be accepted by patients, 4) choices of tasks need to adaptable to clinical conditions, 5) and interpretation of results need to remain dependant of each patient&rsquo;s context.  Most existing instruments assessing fitness to drive are not designed for primary care settings.  Future instruments should also aim to support patient-centred dialogue, help anticipate driving cessation, and offer patients the opportunity to freely take their own decision on driving cessation as often as possible.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:49:40 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279294</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A new neuropsychological instrument measuring effects of age and drugs on fitness to drive: development, reliability, and validity of MedDrive</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279293</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This research aims to provide a free, reliable, transparent computer based instrument capable of detecting effects of age or drugs on visual processing and cognitive functions.  Relying on systematic reviews of neuropsychological tests and driving performances, we conceived four new computed tasks measuring: visual processing (Task1), movement attention shift (Task2), executive response, alerting and orientation gain (Task3), and spatial memory (Task4).  We then planned five studies to test MedDrive's reliability and validity.  Study-1 defined instructions and learning functions collecting data from 105 senior drivers attending an automobile club course.  Study-2 assessed concurrent validity for detecting minor cognitive impairment (MCI) against useful field of view (UFOV) on 120 new senior drivers.  Study-3 collected data from 200 healthy drivers aged 20-90 to model age related normal cognitive decline.  Study-4 measured MedDrive's reliability having 21 healthy volunteers repeat tests five times.  Study-5 tested MedDrive's responsiveness to alcohol in a randomised, double-blinded, placebo, crossover, dose-response validation trial including 20 young healthy volunteers.  Instructions were well understood and accepted by all senior drivers.  MedDrive was capable of explaining 43.4 per cent of changes occurring with natural cognitive decline.  In young healthy drivers, learning effects became negligible from the third session onwards for all tasks except for dual tasking.  All measures except alerting and orientation gain were affected by blood alcohol concentrations.  Finally, MedDrive was able to explain 29.3 per cent of potential causes of swerving on the driving simulator.  MedDrive reveals improved performances compared to existing computed neuropsychological tasks.  It shows promising results both for clinical and research purposes.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Dec 2013 08:49:36 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1279293</guid>
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