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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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    <item>
      <title>Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS): Assessing the Efficacy of Non-Impact Testing for Evaluating the Performance of Frontal Collision Mitigation Technology</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2539050</link>
      <description><![CDATA[As Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) systems become standard equipment in more light duty vehicles, the ability to evaluate these systems efficiently is becoming critical to regulatory agencies and manufacturers. A key driver of the practicality of evaluating these systems’ performance is the potential collision between the subject vehicle and test target. AEB performance can depend on vehicle-to-vehicle closing speeds, crash scenarios, and nuanced differences between various situational and environmental factors. Consequently, high speed impacts that may occur while evaluating the performance of an AEB system, as a result of partial or incomplete mitigation by an AEB activation, can cause significant damage to both the test vehicle and equipment, which may be impractical. For tests in which impact with the test target is not acceptable, or as a means of increasing test count, an alternative test termination methodology may be used. One such method constitutes the application of a late steering maneuver by the driver to avoid the target prior to a potential collision. In this study, a test series was performed with and without late steering input to determine if this alternative AEB evaluation methodology can be used to accurately predict the degree to which an AEB system performs. The results were compared to non-swerve tests to assess whether non-impact testing can be used to determine the extent to which AEB system response would have mitigated a collision. The findings indicate that there are significant limitations to the accuracy of predictions made with this approach.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 15 Apr 2025 13:56:46 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2539050</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control in a Mixed-Autonomy Traffic System: A Hybrid Stochastic Predictive Approach Incorporating Lane Change</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2101578</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper presents a stochastic and predictive control design approach for connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) in a mixed-autonomy traffic environment, where CAVs are able to react properly to uncertain maneuvers of human-driven vehicles (HVs). The proposed fully-automated cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC) design leverages a discrete hybrid stochastic model predictive controller that automatically determines the vehicle's operating mode based on onboard sensors data and information received through vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication. Operating modes include free following, warning, danger, emergency braking, and lane change. Although the controller mainly focuses on maintaining the desired velocity and distance among CAVs, it also allows HVs to perform lane-change maneuvers and merge into the platoon's lane when needed. In response to an HV's position in the lane and its probabilistic behavior, the controller may switch the CAV's operating mode to react accordingly. Considering free-following and emergency-braking modes leads to efficient and safe autonomous driving. Switching between warning, danger, and lane-change modes along with adjusting the steering angle to perform a lane-change maneuver, when needed, robustifies the platoon's performance against unexpected human-driven vehicle maneuvers. Simulation studies are conducted to validate the efficacy of the proposed control design approach. The performance of the proposed control design approach is also compared to a switching control using simulation studies.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 23 Mar 2023 10:19:57 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2101578</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Safety of Automatic Emergency Braking in Platooning</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1929752</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A platoon comprises a string of consecutive highly automated vehicles traveling together. Platooning allows for increased road utilization and reduced fuel consumption due to short inter-vehicular distances. Safety in terms of guaranteeing no rear-end collisions is of utmost importance for platooning systems to be deployed in practice. The authors compare how safely emergency braking can be handled by emerging vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communications on the one hand and by radar-based measurements of existing automatic emergency braking systems (AEBS) on the other. The authors show that even under conservative assumptions on the V2V communications, such an approach significantly outperforms AEBS with an ideal radar sensor in terms of allowed inter-vehicle distances and response times. Furthermore, the authors design two emergency braking strategies for platooning based on V2V communications. The first braking strategy assumes centralized coordination by the leading vehicle and exploits necessary optimal conditions of a constrained optimization problem, whereas the second – the more conservative solution – assumes only local information and is distributed in nature. Both strategies are also compared with the AEBS.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 25 Mar 2022 12:08:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1929752</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Vehicle’s Front End Profile Influence on Pedestrian Sensing System Using In-House Developed PDI-2 and Child FE Models</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1834995</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Many active safety systems are being developed with the intent of protecting pedestrians namely; pedestrian airbags, active hood, active emergency braking (AEB), etc. Effectiveness of such protection system relies on the efficiency of the sensing systems. The pop-up hood system was developed to help reduce pedestrian head injuries. A pop-up system is expected to make full deployment of the hood before the pedestrian’s head could hit the hood. The system should have the capability to detect most road users ranging from a six year old (6YO) child to a large male. To test the sensing system, an impactor model (PDI-2) was developed. Sensor response varies for vehicles with different front end profile dimensions. To study numerically the sensor response characteristics with respect to different front end parameters, (a) PDI-2 FE model was developed and validated, (b) FE model of sensor was developed and validated, (c) Sensor FE model was incorporated in the vehicle and it was simulated against the PDI-2 FE. The results were validated with physical experiments, (d) Vehicles with different front end profile models were developed and finally (e) Sensor response were studied using different vehicle designs simulated against PDI-2 FE and 6YO-child FE model. Results shows that for PDI-2 impacts, bumper height, bumper upper lead and bumper lower lead have influence in pressure sensor response. For 6YO-child impacts, the bumper height has influence in pressure sensor response.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 11 Feb 2022 14:24:34 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1834995</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Active human body models for virtual occupant response :step 3</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1706495</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Real world crashes are usually preceded by events that can include automated or driver initiated braking and steering manoeuvres prior to crash, as well as road departures. During such events, there is a need to take the muscle response of the occupants into account. In previous projects, the project team has developed an active human body model (HBM) capable of predicting human kinematics for autonomous vehicle braking (for driver and front seat passenger). In addition, the lower extremity muscle activity was implemented to enable prediction of human kinematics for anticipatory voluntary driver braking. In parallel projects, the project team is working with the injury prediction capabilities of the HBM during the crash sequence. To enable real world occupant protection evaluation, it is essential to combine these capabilities into one single tool that can predict human responses during sequences of events, such as combined emergency and crash events, road departure events, and other long duration crash events, and that can predict driver actions, such as steering and braking. With the overall goal of evaluating occupant protection through whole sequences of events; the aim of this project was to develop a methodology to enhance the Active HBM (A-HBM) with oblique and lateral muscle control, validate the model and use it in application areas for safety improvements. The project has further developed the A-HBM’s capability of predicting humanlike kinematics in avoidance manoeuvres. Specifically, a methodology for oblique and lateral muscle control was developed for horizontal plane events, and implemented into the SAFER HBM, developing a seamless tool to simulate pre-crash manoeuvres in addition to crash evaluation. Extensive validation data for lane change manoeuvres, with and without braking, has been gathered and initial validation of the enhanced model was made including braking as well as lane change manoeuvres. In addition, industrial integration of the model was carried out during the project, and applied in areas for safety improvements by the industrial partners.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 14 May 2020 09:41:37 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1706495</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Novel PMSM Control for Anti-Lock Braking Considering Transmission Properties of the Electric Vehicle</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1568271</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The driving motor of the electric vehicle (EV) can recover the kinetic energy during normal braking maneuvers by a regenerative function. At the same time, its dynamic torque response proves to be accurate and fast for an emergency braking, namely an anti-lock braking, with the coordinated control of the frictional braking system. However, vehicle transmission properties will deteriorate the control performance of the motor, especially in the anti-lock braking process. A novel permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) control method is proposed considering the transmission influence on this high-dynamic braking process of the pure EV. First, the EV's dynamic model, which includes the PMSM field-oriented control model, the transmission dynamic model, and the hydraulic braking system, is built, and the influences of transmission elasticity and backlash non-linearity on the motor-braking torque are analyzed. Then, based on the wheel slip ratio target of the anti-lock braking, the novel mode-switching method for the motor-torque control between the backlash sliding-mode compensation and the elasticity double-closed-loop PID compensation is put forward. Two state-of-the-art anti-lock braking algorithms, which simplify the transmission properties, the slip ratio phase-plane theory, and the sliding-mode control, are compared with the proposed method. Simulation and test-bench experiment results show that, on different test-road surfaces, the mode-switching PMSM control can effectively compensate for transmission effects and significantly improve the EV's anti-lock braking comfort, stability, and maneuverability with fast and accurate motor-torque regulating.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 21 Feb 2019 09:51:14 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1568271</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Active human body models for virtual occupant response: step 2</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1506445</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The risk for a vehicle occupant to sustain an injury in a crash is reduced in vehicles that are equipped with systems that autonomously brake the vehicle before a crash. Hence, the reduced impact velocity results in a reduced injury risk. Additional occupant protection can be achieved if also occupant restraints are initiated in situations in which the vehicle autonomously brakes. Such initiations can be to pre-tense the seat belts, to help keep or put the occupant in a good position for the protection systems. In an emergency braking sequence the vehicle occupant can interact with the vehicle interior by resisting the forward motion by tensing the muscles in the body. To develop occupant protection systems that interact with the occupant before the impact there is a need to also take the muscle response of the occupants into account. However, such tools are not available. Therefore in this project a mathematical (finite element) human model with active muscles was developed. The model can predict the kinematics of a vehicle occupant, both driver and passenger, in an emergency braking (autonomous braking) vehicle up to 2 seconds braking of the vehicle prior to potential impact. To develop and validate the active human body model, volunteer tests (20) in braking vehicles were carried out to collect necessary data. Both autonomous braking and voluntary braking tests were carried out. Drivers as well as passengers were included. A significant amount of data was collected, such as video recordings of the motion of the occupants, forces in the steering wheel, force in the brake pedal and force in the foot rest. To model muscle tensing of occupants during vehicle braking, the activity of selected muscles of the volunteers were recorded using Electromyografi (EMG) measurements.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 28 Mar 2018 10:26:20 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1506445</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Characteristics of nearside car crashes: an integrated approach to side impact safety</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1506312</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Approximately 1.25 million people globally are killed in traffic accidents yearly. To achieve the UN Global Goal of a 50% reduction of fatal and serious injuries in 2020 a safer infrastructure, as well as new safety technologies, will be needed. Side crashes represent 20% of all serious and 25 % of fatal injuries. The overall aim of this thesis is to provide guidelines for improved side impact protection. First, by characterizing nearside crashes and injury outcome, including injuries from the farside occupant, for non-senior and senior front seat occupants. Second, to determine whether the WorldSID dummy provides opportunities for improved in-crash occupant protection. And third, by relating in-crash occupant protection to pre-crash countermeasures, to explore a holistic approach for side crashes using the integrated safety chain from safe driving to crash. NASS/CDS data for both older and modern vehicles was used to provide exposure, incidence, and risk for fatal injury as well as detailed injury distribution and crash characteristics. The WorldSID dummy was compared to Post Mortem Human Subjects (PMHS) in impactor tests at high and low severities to demonstrate the possibilities of this tool. Crash tests were performed to evaluate WorldSID crash test dummy assessments of injuries found in the NASS/CDS data. The integrated safety chain was used to demonstrate how to evaluate occupant protection in side crashes from a larger perspective, involving infrastructure and Automated Emergency Braking. Most side crashes occur at intersections. The head, thorax, and pelvis are the most frequently injured body regions, and seniors have a higher risk for rib fractures compared to non-seniors. The WorldSID dummy response was similar to the PMHS response at the higher impact speed, but not at the lower. In conjunction with improved airbags infrastructural change, and the use of Automated Emergency Braking, can effectively reduce the number of fatalities and injured occupants in side impacts.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 28 Mar 2018 09:52:52 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1506312</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Fatal Car to Moose Collisions: Real-World In-Depth Data, Crash Tests and Potential of Different Countermeasures</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1490114</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Vehicle collisions with large animals constitute a high risk of serious or fatal injuries, for example in northern America, Europe and Japan. In Sweden approximately 5,000 car collisions with moose occur annually. The change of velocity and acceleration is in general very low, but the car structure is not designed for collision with large animals at high speed. The objectives were to evaluate occupant response and vehicle structure in crash tests; to investigate the factors involved in real-world fatal crashes in Sweden; and to evaluate the potential of Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB) to increase moose car collision avoidance and survivability. Five crash tests were conducted with cars with different sizes and characteristics, such as glass and sun roof. A moose crash dummy was impacted at 70 km/h. The Swedish Transport Administration (STA) national database of fatal collisions was used to study fatalities (n=47) in collisions with moose during the period 2005-2016. The analysis focused on collisions where the primary cause of fatality was the collision with a moose. The crash tests showed that a moose collision could be survivable at 70 km/h with an acceptable distance to the header structure. None of the tested cars had an intrusion by the moose into the occupant compartment. The results of the in-depth data analysis showed that a critical factor for a fatal injury was whether the roof was partly or completely ripped off. Downward deformation of the front header structure was also critical together with Apillar deformation. In 24% of the accidents the moose was partly or completely trapped inside the occupant compartment. In 90% of the fatal collisions it was darkness or twilight. In more than 85% of the collisions, no evidence of braking could be detected prior to collision. All of the collisions occurred on rural roads and 83% of the fatalities occurred on roads with speed limits of 90 km/h or above. In eight accident scenes there were moose fences to prevent moose access to the road. In those accidents, however, the fence was either damaged or had open sections. The analysis of the roadside area showed that in many of the moose accidents the side view was enough to allow detection of the moose by an AEB sensor. A critical issue is the ability of the sensors to detect the moose in darkness. The study of the potential for AEB with moose detection was conducted under the assumption that night vision sensors are available, such as infrared sensors or light amplifying technique. With a threshold of 70 km/h for car-moose collision survivability, the results of the analysis showed that AEB had a potential to save (~40%) 18 out of 47 lives. It is suggested that road fencing is preferable on roads with speed limits above 90 km/h, and below 100 km/h, the moose AEB has a potential to avoid fatal moose crashes.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 30 Nov 2017 17:20:29 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1490114</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Study on Requirements for Load Emulation of the Vehicle With an Electric Braking System</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1489110</link>
      <description><![CDATA[For different configurations of the electric braking systems (EBS) in the vehicle, requirements for the emulation of their dynamic load on the test bench are studied in this paper, in order to determine appropriate parameters of the test equipment. First, models of three kinds of EBS as well as the test bench are built and characteristics of the transmission system including elasticity and backlash nonlinearity with their influences on the braking performance are fully considered. Two normal braking strategies, namely the maximum-motor-torque strategy and the good-pedal-feel strategy, are designed and the antilock braking strategy that includes the regenerative and friction blended torque control of the wheel slip ratio, the sliding mode control of the backlash, and the PID closed-loop control for elasticity compensation in the emergency condition is proposed. With these methods, motor and frictional braking torque are under the coordinated control to make the most of the EBS. Then, the scheme and control methods of load emulation including the PI method and the feedforward method on the test bench are put forward. Based on the models and control methods, vehicle braking results that indicate the emulation effects and requirements of different kinds of EBS in the MATLAB/Simulink environment are shown; and meanwhile, the dynamic performance parameters of the test bench containing the moment of inertia and the time constant of torque response are obtained for the selection of the test equipment. Finally, experiments on the real bench are carried out. The loading and motion of the vehicle EBS under various braking conditions can be accurately emulated on the proposed test bench and the reliable test results make it possible to investigate the EBS safely, economically, and time-efficiently in the laboratory.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 28 Nov 2017 09:19:45 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1489110</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Surrogate Bicycle Design for Millimeter-Wave Automotive Radar Pre-Collision Testing</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1481315</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper discusses the development of a surrogate bicycle target for evaluating the effectiveness of vehicular autonomous emergency braking (AEB)/ pre-collision systems (PCSs) that uses 77-GHz radar systems in detecting bicyclists on the road. The design objective of the surrogate bicycle is to produce similar optical appearance and radar response in a 76–78 GHz band as a real bicycle selected based on its popularity (in 2014) in the United States. In addition, the surrogate bicyclist needs to be able to withstand the impact of the test vehicle traveling at 30 mph (or 48 kph) should it fail to detect the surrogate target. The authors' design approach differs from the only other surrogate bicyclist developed by a European research group in that their surrogate bicyclist produces similar radar response as a real bicyclist over the entire 360° of azimuth angles. The authors' design approach began with experimental characterizing the radar cross section (RCS) patterns of real bikes of different types as well as identifying RCS contributions of different parts on a bike via accurate simulations, which were also used for design optimizations. The RCS performance of the fabricated surrogate bicycle was verified via 360° azimuth pattern measurement comparison with a real bicycle. Its physical performance was tested via actual field testing on a test track with two commercial vehicles equipped with AEB and PCS systems.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 26 Sep 2017 16:09:34 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1481315</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Safety Assessment of Autonomous Emergency Braking Systems on Unbelted Occupants Using a Fully Active Human Model</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1360437</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper assesses the safety benefits of a typical Autonomous Emergency Braking System (AEBS) followed by a subsequent 25 mph rigid wall impact using a 50th percentile active human model including full muscle activity behaviour. Occupant kinematics as a function of various postures and states of awareness are investigated to determine the degree of out-of-position and their respective chest, neck and head injuries. The study concludes that the Madymo Active Human Model is suited to model active safety scenarios and that the generated kinematics and injuries provided are plausible. The study has established that, within the active safety scenario investigated, the occupant's kinematics depend on the seat friction coefficient, arms' kinematics and the level of awareness. Overall, it has been observed that for a reflex delayed response of less than 120 ms that chest, neck and head injuries values for gripping the steering wheel with 2 hands were comparable for a given value of seat friction. Alternatively, occupants with 1 hand on the steering wheel (holding a mobile phone for example) were out of the airbag deployment zone after 1.1 s of extreme braking regardless of their state of awareness and seat friction value.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 09 Jul 2015 13:04:56 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1360437</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Local Peer Group Based Emergency Brake Information Distribution Lab Demonstration</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/903146</link>
      <description><![CDATA[As part of adaptive cruise control system, electronic brake control can decrease the risk of collision accidents with faster response and more powerful brake application than that possible by drivers’ ability alone. To make it more effective, this capability must be enhanced with information sharing among adjacent vehicles over wireless communication. We have developed a dynamic vehicular network platform called “Local Peer Group (LPG) Communication” which is a cross-layer protocol suite that maintains the vehicular wireless media and networks based on group formation and maintenance. In this paper, we introduce simulation results for emergency brake information distribution over LPG in comparison to that of flooding and show the potential of LPG for preventing collisions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 17 Nov 2009 14:59:23 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/903146</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>RECONSTRUCTION OF MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENTS: A TECHNICAL COMPENDIUM. A COMPARISON OF AUTOMOBILE AND TRUCK DECELERATIONS DURING EMERGENCY BRAKING</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/355197</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Truck skid marks are routinely used as a basis for computing energy loss and the associated speed change. Site specific coefficient of friction values, however, are most often related to passenger car tests. Therefore, to properly utilize truck skid data requires a correlation between truck and car responses to full braking. This paper reports the results of two series of tests correlating the response of trucks and cars under a range of similar conditions. The vehicles were instrumented in order to measure velocity and deceleration values during braking. In addition, length of skid measurements were made and related to vehicular response.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 30 Apr 1991 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/355197</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>STATUS REPORT ON PRIORITY PROGRAMS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/297473</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In 1983, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) published a Safety Priority Plan setting forth an ambitious program to fulfill its commitment to reducing the deaths and injuries from motor vehicle accidents.  However, as the 1983 Plan recognized, the setting of priorities is an ongoing and dynamic process requiring changes in response to new data or research results.  Thus, while NHTSA's overall direction has not changed significantly since the 1983 Plan was published, changes have been made to specific projects and milestones to meet these new conditions.  This document reports on the status of many of the most significant programs now underway.  It provides background on why the programs are "priorities", what approach is being taken, and what milestones are expected to be reached within the next 2-3 years.  The highway safety programs include:  alcohol and drugs; emergency medical services; motorcycle safety; National Driver Register; occupant protection; Section 402 grant program; speed; and traffic records.  The vehicle safety programs include:  frontal protection; harmonization; heavy truck safety; lighting; light truck safety; passenger car braking and stability; passenger car side protection; rollover protection; and theft prevention.  The programs including both highway and vehicle activities include: Centers for Disease Control Program; child safety; consumer information; crash data; elderly drivers; and pedestrian safety.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 31 Jul 1990 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/297473</guid>
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