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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <title>Exploring the need to model severity of single- and multi-occupant vehicles crashes separately: A case of crashes at highway-rail grade crossings</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2079179</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In recent years, traffic safety researchers have attempted to separate single-vehicle and multi-vehicle crashes when analyzing crash severity, considering the significant differences in the mechanism of occurrence of the two crash types. However, regardless of the number of vehicles involved in a crash, the severity of a crash is defined by the most severe injury outcome sustained by the occupants, not vehicles. Thus, this study evaluated a need for conducting a separate severity analysis for crashes involving a single occupant (SO) and multiple occupants (MO). Ten-year data (2009-2018) of crashes that involved a collision between a single vehicle and a train at the highway-rail grade crossings (HRGCs) across the United States was used as a case study. Crashes were grouped based on occupancy level; that is, crashes involving SO were separated from the ones involving MO. As expected, MO crashes had higher injury and fatality rates than SO crashes. Three Multinomial Logit (MNL) models were developed to analyze the crash severity of SO crashes, MO crashes, and total crashes. The study found several differences in associated factors when SO crashes and MO crashes were modeled separately. Overall, combining SO and MO crashes tend to either underestimate or overestimate the actual impact of the predictor variable on a specific crash type. Among the variables, train speed and vehicle speed during crash showed a great difference. The findings provide evidence that the severity analysis of the SO and MO crashes should be performed separately as they have different characteristics.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 24 Jan 2023 09:31:40 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2079179</guid>
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      <title>Examination of Factors Determining At-Fault and Not-at-Fault Status in Multivehicle Conflicts Using the SHRP 2 Data</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1479152</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Multivehicle crashes resulted in more than 14,000 fatalities in 2013, which accounted for more than 40 percent of all traffic fatalities across the United States. In a majority of these crashes one or more of the crash-involved drivers were identified as being an at-fault driver, meaning that they performed a leading error that contributed to the crash occurrence. Research has generally shown that the characteristics and behaviors of such drivers are different from those of not-at-fault drivers. The purpose of this study was to identify the factors associated with at-fault and not-at-fault status in a multivehicle conflict. The Naturalistic Driving Study data that have been developed as part of the second Strategic Highway  Research Program were utilized to further investigate these factors. Multivehicle conflicts, including both crash and near-crash events, were investigated in association with driver characteristics and behaviors that were captured through different surveys. Mixed-effect logistic regression models were developed to examine and compare a multitude of data elements including driver demographic information, risk perception, driving behaviors, and sleep habits. Consequently, the factors associated with fault status were identified using the detailed data. The findings revealed that full-time workers, drivers who perceive tailgating as being high risk, and those who were not involved in any crashes during the three years  prior to the study were less likely to be at fault. On the other hand, the likelihood of being at fault was found to be noticeably higher among drivers who were less risk averse, including those who believed that accelerating at the onset of yellow is low risk, as well as for those drivers who feel fatigued nearly every day.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 03 Aug 2017 11:54:54 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1479152</guid>
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      <title>Prehospital Transportation Decisions for Patients Sustaining Major Trauma in Road Traffic Crashes in Sweden</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1421661</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The objective of this study was to evaluate the proportion and characteristics of patients sustaining major trauma in road traffic crashes (RTCs) who could benefit from direct transportation to a trauma center (TC).   Currently, there is no national classification of TC in Sweden. In this study, 7 university hospitals (UHs) in Sweden were selected to represent a TC level I or level II. These UHs have similar capabilities as the definition for level I and level II TC in the United States. Major trauma was defined as Injury Severity Score (ISS) > 15. A total of 117,730 patients who were transported by road or air ambulance were selected from the Swedish TRaffic Accident Data Acquisition (STRADA) database between 2007 to 2014. An analysis of the patient characteristics sustaining major trauma in comparison with patients sustaining minor trauma (ISS < 15) was conducted. Major trauma patients transported to a TC versus non-TC were further analyzed with respect to injured body region and road user type.   Approximately 3% (n = 3, 411) of patients sustained major trauma. Thirty-eight percent of major trauma patients were transported to a TC, and 62% were transported to a non-TC. This results in large proportions of patients with Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) 3+ injuries being transported to a non-TC.  The number of AIS 3+ head injuries for major trauma patients transported to a TC versus non-TC were similar, whereas a larger number of AIS 3+ thorax injuries were present in the non-TC group. The non-TC major trauma patients had a higher probability of traveling in a car, truck, or bus and to be involved in a crash in a rural location.   The results show that the majority of RTC major trauma patients are transported to a non-TC. This may cause unnecessary morbidity and mortality. These findings can guide the development of improved prehospital treatment guidelines, protocols and decision support systems.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 23 Sep 2016 11:29:37 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1421661</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Effects of Demographic and Driver Factors on Single-Vehicle and Multivehicle Fatal Crashes: Investigation with Multinomial Logistic Regression</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1338624</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Human error is often considered the leading cause of motor vehicle crashes. Although some research has been conducted to assess the influence of human factors, full driver impacts on crashes are rarely analyzed, especially on a large scale in the United States. This study sought to identify the driver behavior and demographic factors that affected the likelihood of a multivehicle or single-vehicle fatal crash. A multinomial logistic regression framework, including odds ratios, was used to analyze the variables from several states. A tiered model approach was adopted to find the variable effects for combined, urban, rural, undivided urban, divided urban, undivided rural, and divided rural data sets. Each model produced different significant demographic or driver variables, many being unique or contradictory to the expected results of other research. Gender, often seen as a major contribution to crash outcome, was significant only for the full and urban models and likely not an important variable for determining crash outcomes in rural areas. Distracted driving and failing to make avoidance maneuvers were notably significant across various roadway types. Contrary to other studies, age, licensure, restraint use, and driving at certain times of the day were not found to be significant factors for either single- or multivehicle fatal crashes. Last, some previous conclusions about the number of occupants were refuted. These results may help safety analysts improve crash analysis and prevention methods.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 12 Mar 2015 15:19:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1338624</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Assessing the Relative Crash Fault of Out-of-State Drivers in Vermont, USA</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1305112</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study examined single- and two-vehicle police-reported crashes in Vermont, United States, between 2003 and 2008. It evaluated the likelihood of being at-fault for Vermont drivers versus out-of-state drivers older than age 25 years. Analysis using logistic regression estimated that out-of-state drivers are twice as likely to be at-fault for a single-vehicle crash and 7% more likely to be at-fault for a two-vehicle crash. Season of year and road type (paved vs. unpaved) were statistically significant interactions for Vermont and out-of-state drivers for single-vehicle crashes. Driving during the winter months had more pronounced effects of increasing single-vehicle crash fault for out-of-state drivers than for Vermont drivers. No statistically significant differences were found in the factors that affect crash fault between Vermont and out-of-state drivers for two-vehicle crashes. The relative evaluation of crash fault for nonlocal drivers has been understudied in the United States. Previous research, conducted mostly in other countries, has been limited but has shown that foreign drivers are more likely to be involved in a crash. This study suggests the need for further study of drivers away from home within their own country as well as identification of associated interventions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 29 Jul 2014 09:08:57 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1305112</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Crashes Involving Single-Unit Trucks that Resulted in Injuries and Deaths</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1309825</link>
      <description><![CDATA[There are 8.22 million single-unit trucks registered in the United States, which travel more than 110.7 billion miles each year. Although single-unit trucks comprise three percent of registered motor vehicles and four percent of miles traveled, they are involved in nine percent of fatalities among passenger vehicle occupants in multivehicle crashes. Crashes involving single-unit trucks and passenger vehicles pose a hazard to passenger vehicle occupants due to the differences in weight, bumper height, and vehicle stiffness. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) undertook this study because of concerns about the safety record of single-unit trucks and an interest in identifying countermeasures to address the risks posed by these vehicles. One of the concerns is that single-unit trucks are excluded from some safety rules applicable to tractor-trailers. This study used a variety of data sources, including state records of police and hospital reports, federal databases, and case reviews of selected single-unit truck crashes. Risks were compared between single-unit trucks and tractor-trailers. The study found that the adverse effects of single-unit truck crashes have been underestimated in the past because these trucks are frequently misclassified and thus undercounted in federal and state databases (approximately 20 percent in the case of fatalities). There are substantial societal impacts resulting from single-unit truck crashes, including deaths, non-fatal injuries, hospitalizations, and hospital costs. Areas identified for safety improvements include the need to (1) enhance the ability of drivers of single-unit trucks to detect vulnerable road users such as pedestrians and cyclists, (2) prevent passenger vehicles from underriding the rears and sides of single-unit trucks, (3) improve conspicuity of single-unit trucks, (4) improve federal and state databases on large truck crashes, (5) continue the functions of databases vital for accurate fatality data or that link hospital data with police reports, (6) examine the frequency and consequences of single-unit truck drivers operating with an invalid license, and (7) research the potential benefits of expanding the commercial driver’s licensure requirement to lower weight classes.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 28 May 2014 15:26:38 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1309825</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Burden of hospitalizations for bicycling injuries by motor vehicle involvement: United States, 2002 to 2009</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1277869</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study examines the burden of of hospitalizations for bicycling injuries by motor vehicle involvement, using 2002-2009 data from the US Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) of patients with primary or secondary diagnosis e-codes corresponding to motor vehicle crash (MVC) or non-MVC bicycle injury. Examined patient and hospital characteristics examined included length of stay, total charges, nonroutine discharges, and demographics. These were evaluated using descriptive statistics, linear regression and logistic regression.  An average estimated 6,877 MVC and 18,457 non-MVC bicycle injury hospitalizations occurred annually from 2002 to 2009. The average length of stay for MVC bicycling injury hospitalizations was 2 days or longer and average hospitalization charge was $23,424 more for MVC than for non-MVC. A nonroutine hospital discharge was found to be more likely for those with MVC bicycling injuries than those without.  Although non-MVC injuries occur more frequently and result in higher overall hospitalization charges, the authors find that MVC-related injuries result in longer hospital stays, higher costs, and more nonroutine hospital discharges. The authors suggest that all age groups should be included in efforts to reduce the burden of injury from bicycle crashes, educational interventions, policy and infrastructure changes., and they suggest hat bicycle-motor vehicle collisions should be prioritized.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 23 Dec 2013 07:52:14 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1277869</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Will the light truck bumper height-matching standard reduce deaths in cars?</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1245844</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Background: In a collision between a car and a sport utility vehicle (SUV) or pickup truck, car occupants are more likely to be killed than if they crashed with another car. Some of the excess risk may be due to the propensity of SUVs and pickups with high bumpers to override the lower bumpers in cars. To reduce this incompatibility, particularly in head-on collisions, in 2003 automobile manufacturers voluntarily established a bumper height-matching standard for pickups and SUVs. Objective: To assess whether height-matching bumpers in pickups and SUVs were associated with the risk of death in either car occupants or pickup and SUV occupants. Methods: Case–control study of collisions between one car and one SUV or pickup in the US during 2000–2008, in which the SUV or pickup was model year 2000–2006. Cases were all decedents in fatal crashes; one control was selected from each crash in a national probability sample of crashes. Findings: Occupants of cars that crashed with SUVs or pickups with height-matching bumpers may be at slightly reduced risk of death compared to those that crashed with other SUVs or pickups (adjusted odds ratio: 0.83 (95% confidence interval 0.61–1.13)). There was no evidence of a reduction in risk in head-on crashes (1.09 (0.66–1.79)). In crashes in which the SUV or pickup struck the car on the side, height-matched bumpers were associated with a reduced risk of death (0.68 (0.48–0.97)). Occupants of SUVs and pickups with height-matching bumpers may also be at slightly reduced risk of death (0.91 (0.64–1.28)). Conclusions: Height-matching bumpers were associated with a reduced risk of death among car occupants in crashes in which SUVs or pickups struck cars in the side, but there was little evidence of an effect in head-on crashes. The new bumper height-matching standard may not achieve its primary goal of reducing deaths in head-on crashes, but may modestly reduce overall deaths in crashes between cars and SUVs or pickups because of unanticipated benefits to car occupants in side crashes, and a possible beneficial effect to SUV and pickup occupants.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 11 Apr 2013 09:00:14 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1245844</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Analysis of HSRI study of car/ truck crashes in the United States</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1187419</link>
      <description><![CDATA[]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 24 Aug 2012 07:19:58 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1187419</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Influence of a Truck Side Under-ride Guard Height on Cabin Intrusion and Occupant Injury Potential of a Small Car in Car/Large-Truck Side Crashes</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1118205</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article reports on a study that investigated the usefulness of a side guard attached to large trucks to reduce cabin intrusion and car occupant injuries in crashes.  In collisions between cars and large trucks, the size, weight, and stiffness mismatch results in a much larger structural deformation of the car compared to that of the truck, and larger potential for car occupants’ injuries, particularly when the passenger vehicle trends beneath the rear or side of the taller truck.  The authors note that, in the United States, under-ride guards are required only for the rears of large trucks.  However, a review of fatal truck-car crashes in the NCSS/CDS indicates that fatal under-ride crashes involving the sides of large trucks are almost as common as fatal rear under-ride crashes.  The authors’ study used validated finite element models of a passenger car and a truck to quantify the influence of a side guard attached to a large truck.  They propose a formulation based on a normalized passenger compartment intrusion and its relation to the occupant injury potential.  A NHTSA under-ride test was simulated first for model validation. Further simulations were then conducted at the speed range of 30 to 50 mph and for 90 and 45-degree impact angles. The results from a parametric study are used to identify the critical guard height resulting in severe cabin deceleration and compartment intrusion of the small car. This study quantifies the vulnerability of car occupants in truck side under-ride crashes and the effectiveness of side guard at different ground heights in reducing the injury potential to car occupants. The authors conclude that the size of the impacting car has a significant effect on the passenger compartment intrusion as well as the injury potential to the occupants. The smaller the size of the impacting car is, the lower the height of the side guard required to keep the impact in the safe region.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 28 Oct 2011 08:40:41 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1118205</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Characteristics and Contributory Factors of Work Zone Crashes</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1093220</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Work zone crashes have accounted for 9,900 fatalities in the United States in the last ten years. For addressing the safety in the work zones, a clear understanding of work zone crash characteristics would be valuable for highway agencies in setting up proper traffic management plans based on the prevailing conditions.  Accordingly this study investigated characteristics of work zone crashes of the states currently included in the Smart Work Zone Deployment Initiative (SWZDI) region which are Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Wisconsin. Work zone crash data was obtained from respective departments of transportation and crash data from year 2002 to 2006 was considered. The characteristics related to work zone crashes such as environmental conditions, vehicles, crashes, driver, and roadway factors were analyzed for the combined states. The results showed that majority of the work zone crashes occurred in the activity area of the work zone where the actual work goes on. The lane closure type of work zone is the one where most of the work zone crashes occurred. Multiple vehicle crashes and rear-end collisions were also more predominant in work zones. Some of the primary drivers contributing factors in work zone crashes were inattentive driving and following too close for the conditions. The middle aged drivers were more involved in work zone crashes.  In order to find the relation between crash severity and other variables a test of independency was performed between them using chi-square test methodology. This analysis yielded crucial results which helped in understanding major factors associated with work zone crashes.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 21 Mar 2011 14:14:04 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1093220</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Effects of Electronic Stability Control: An Update</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/798464</link>
      <description><![CDATA[An earlier study reported that electronic stability control (ESC) in passenger vehicles reduced single-vehicle crash involvement risk by 41% and single-vehicle fatal crash involvement risk by 56%. The purpose of the present study was to update these effectiveness estimates using an additional year of crash data and a larger set of vehicle models. The amount of data increased by half, allowing for separate effectiveness estimates for cars and sport utility vehicles (SUVs) and a more detailed examination of multiple-vehicle crash types. Crash involvement rates per registered vehicle were compared for otherwise identical vehicle models with and without ESC. Based on all police-reported crashes in 10 states during three years, ESC reduced single-vehicle crash involvement risk by approximately 41%. Effects were significantly higher for SUVs than for cars. ESC reduced single-vehicle crash involvement risk by 49% for SUVs and 33% for cars. Based on all fatal crashes in the United States during four years, ESC was found to have reduced single-vehicle fatal crash involvement risk by 56%. Again, effectiveness estimates were higher for SUVs than for cars—59% for SUVs and 53% for cars, but these differences were not statistically significant. Multiple-vehicle fatal crash involvement risk was reduced by 32%–37% for SUVs and 25% for cars. The present study confirms the results of the earlier study. There are significant reductions in single-vehicle crash rates when passenger vehicles are equipped with ESC. In addition, ESC leads to reductions in severe multiple-vehicle crashes.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 01 Feb 2007 08:31:09 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/798464</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Dividing the blame</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/784663</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Subtitle: Study faults car drivers for 56 percent of car-truck accidents; ATA urges crackdown on unsafe motorists.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 11 Jul 2006 09:52:35 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/784663</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>REDUCING FOG-RELATED CRASHES ON THE AFTON AND FANCY GAP MOUNTAIN SECTIONS OF I-64 AND I-77 IN VIRGINIA</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/724844</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The Fancy Gap and Afton Mountain interstates have a long history of fog-related, multivehicle crashes.  Within a 3-week period in 1998, two major fog-related crashes occurred on I-64 where it crosses Afton Mountain.  The first involved 65 vehicles and 40 injuries and lasted almost 20 minutes.  The second occurred 17 days later and involved 21 vehicles.  Similar crashes have occurred on I-77 over Fancy Gap Mountain in Carroll County, Virginia.  Because of its involvement in evaluating the original Afton Mountain fog mitigation system, the Virginia Transportation Research Council created an expert panel of decision makers from the Virginia Department of Transportation and the Virginia State Police and with the help of the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute staffed the panel.  After detailed crash analyses, a review of the literature on fog and its effects, and an extensive survey of fog mitigation systems in the United States and abroad, the panel issued the following recommendations:  (1) Install variable message signs "immediately prior" to the most fog-prone areas to warn drivers of detected incidents or fog-related vehicle stops or slowdowns ahead.  Use high advisory radio within the fog zone to communicate with drivers.  (2) Install video cameras in the Afton and Fancy Gap fog areas.  Explore the use of ultra-low-temperature, infrared video cameras to penetrate fog. (3) Increase police visibility, including increased patrols and possible staff assignments to I-77 at Fancy Gap and I-64 at Afton.  (4) Seek authorization for experimental use of advisory and regulatory variable speed limits on I-77 as part of the new Fancy Gap fog mitigation system.  (5) Conduct research to improve the legibility and visibility of variable message signs in fog.  Study the effectiveness of static signs augmented with strobes and lasers to warn drivers of detected incidents and slowdowns in the fog zone.  Because the panel included experts from numerous levels of the Virginia Department of Transportation and Virginia State Police and had extensive knowledge and experience with the fog problems under consideration, they were able to discuss their disagreements and come to a consensus on how to proceed.  Because the group also had Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) representatives with extensive technical expertise to advise them, they had confidence that their recommendations were workable and effective.  It may be that this method of building consensus and support can be used as a model to promote deployment of ITS technologies.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 15 Nov 2002 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/724844</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>INJURY SEVERITY IN MULTIVEHICLE REAR-END CRASHES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/692579</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Rear-end crashes constitute a substantial portion of the total crashes in the United States.  They are also amenable to reduction through emerging intelligent transportation systems technologies such as crash warning systems.  A specific objective was to analyze the effect of information and vehicle technology on injury severity in rear-end crashes, while controlling for the effects of driver, vehicle, and roadway factors.  The study is based on real-life data from the Highway Safety Information System for North Carolina access-controlled roadways.  The results show that in two-vehicle crashes the leading driver is more severely injured, whereas in three-vehicle crashes the driver in the middle is more severely injured.  To analyze injury severity on the KABCO scale, three separate ordered probit models were estimated for Drivers 1 (leading), 2 (striking), and 3 (striking, in a three-vehicle crash).  A vehicle age variable was used in the model specification to capture the effect of vehicle age and to serve as a proxy for safety improvements, in particular the center high-mounted stoplight (CHMSL).  The modeling results show that being in a newer vehicle protects the driver in rear-end collisions.  Similarly, being in a newer vehicle protects Driver 2.  Interestingly, striking a newer Vehicle 1 can reduce the chance of both Driver 2 and Driver 3 injuries, partly as a result of CHMSL on Vehicle 1.  Also examined is whether drivers of vans, pickup trucks, and station wagon cars/trucks sustain less-severe injuries because of their larger vehicle mass or more-severe injuries because of their information-blocking effect.  The results show that technological improvements have a quantifiable beneficial effect on safety.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 29 Aug 2001 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/692579</guid>
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