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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>ASSESSMENT OF BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES. VOLUME 2. APPENDICES: PART 2</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/349502</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This document, Part 2 of Volume 2, provides appendices to this report and includes the following technologies: zinc/air battery; lithium/molybdenum disulfide battery; sodium/sulfur battery; nickel/cadmium battery; nickel/iron battery; iron/oxygen battery and iron/air battery.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 28 Feb 1991 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/349502</guid>
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      <title>TEST AND EVALUATION OF THE ZINC-CHLORIDE BATTERY POWERED KUBVAN</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/274463</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A Grumman KUBVAN, fitted with an experimental zinc-chloride battery system, was tested at TVA's Electric Vehicle Test Facility during the period February to April 1985. Extremely limited data were obtained on the performance and energy efficiency of this battery due to the premature failure of the electrolyte circulating (pump P1) and the subsequent sump rupture created by the reaction between chlorine and hydrogen within the battery sump.  This occurred in the partially discharged battery during a 75A capacity load test.  This mode of failure of this mobile battery system raises questions concerning the operation of zinc-chloride batteries in electric vehicles.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 31 Mar 1987 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/274463</guid>
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      <title>ELECTRIC VEHICLES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/275829</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In a review of the prospects for the development of electric vehicles, the author suggests that advances in electronic control systems, and the increasing pressure to reduce emissions, will eventually lead to a greater efficiency and performance of electric vehicles.  The battery electric vehicle can be as efficient as the ICE vehicle in terms of primary energy consumption, as oil is increasingly replaced by shale oil, syncrude, methanol, off-peak electricity, and possibly hydrogen.  The state of current development of a number of types of battery is briefly described including lead acid, nickel-iron, zinc-bromine, zinc-chlorine, sodium-sulphur, lithium metal sulphide and metal-air.  As the conventional ICE engine is having to employ costly forms of emission control and maintenance, and with rising fuel oil costs, so the battery electric/hybrid vehicle is likely to have the opportunity to compete in the transport sector.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 31 Oct 1986 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/275829</guid>
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      <title>ADVANCED BATTERIES FOR VEHICLE PROPULSION</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/217369</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The development of batteries for electric vehicles, performance goals for these batteries, and the strategy being followed in the United States to promote commercialization of electric vehicles are discussed. Intensive battery development is underway in the U.S. and other countries to reduce the consumption of petroleum by shifting the energy source to coal and nuclear power. Through the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development and Demonstration Act of 1976, the U.S. has authorized a large research and development program on battery and electric vehicle technologies and a demonstration program designed to promote the commercialization of electric vehicles.  The existing lead-acid battery does not have sufficiently high performance, in terms of vehicle range, to attract a large market.  Near-term research is aimed at improving the lead-acid battery and developing iron-nickel oxide and zinc-nickel oxide batteries.  One of these is expected to advance sufficiently to achieve commercialization and capture the near-term market.  Advanced batteries such as lithium-aluminum/iron sulfide, sodium/sulfur, and zinc/chlorine promise much higher performance than any near-term battery, vehicle ranges approaching 200 miles with the speed, acceleration and hill-climbing capabilities of gasoline-powered vehicles.  Market penetration through the early stages of commercialization may be through limited markets of submarines, postal vans, buses, and mining vehicles.  Batteries for vehicle propulsion purposes are not likely to find application in earthmoving or large farming equipment.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 31 Jul 1985 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/217369</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>CAN THIS CAR ELECTRIFY AMERICA?</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/209442</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The acceptance of electric vehicles as an energy-related technology is discussed.  A power source devised by Gulf and Western Industries for electric vehicles may make electric cars less expensive to run than conventional cars, help minimize urban pollution, and save more than 600,000 barrels of oil by the year 2000.  General Motors' Electrovette has a propulsion system with the range to cover 90% of round trips driven in the United States.  Advanced battery technologies have potential for significant improvements in longevity and energy density (amount of power stored per kilogram).  The zinc-chlorine battery has generally been considered the most uncertain and difficult of battery developments, although testing indicates that it is a superior battery.  Cost estimates for electric vehicle batteries are given, and the anticipated market for electric vehicles is examined.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 30 Oct 1984 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/209442</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>RECHARGEABLE ZINC BATTERIES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/200914</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article reviews the current status of the research and development programs, in the USA, on rechargeable zinc batteries.  These are in the zinc-bromine, zinc-chlorine, zinc-ferricyanide and zinc-nickel oxide systems.  Most of the electrochemical problems with these batteries are due to the zinc electrode.  Recent advances in zinc batteries include the use of additives and modified charging methods.  Recent work by the author and others on the mechanism of the zinc electrodes in acid electrolytes is discussed and the mechanistic aspects of the effect of additives and charging methods is also reviewed.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 28 Sep 1984 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/200914</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>IS THERE AN ELECTRIC CAR IN YOUR FUTURE? PROMISING NEW BATTERY BREAKTHROUGH</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/202247</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Encouraging new developments in battery technology assuring an increased driving range from 100 to 200 mi., are the center of optimism for the electric car's future.  General Motors' Electrovette, a battery-powered Chevette, has shown the ability to maintain 50 mph and a range of 100 mi. with a new zinc-nickel oxide battery which can store up to three times the energy of a conventional lead-acid type and has a projected 30,000 mi. life.  Promising improvements have been made with the nickel-iron battery (first patented by Edison), and a zinc-chloride battery under development by Energy Development Association of New York offers a 100 mi. range and 150,000 mi. life.  Recent progress in electric car development has been supported by Department of Energy (DOE) funds.  DOE estimates that within 20 years, 8.6 million electric or hybrid (electric/gasoline or electric/diesel) vehicles will be in use in the U.S. DOE rejected a recommendation by the General Accounting Office in April 1979 that electrics not be demonstrated in fleets until their performance was improved.  The oil and auto industries' concern over the competitive effect of electric vehicles (EV's), is evidenced by Exxon's attempt to acquire Reliable Electric Company (electric car components), halted by a temporary restraining order. General Motors and Ford are actively involved in producing electric commuter cars.  Because of the rising demand for EV's in view of fuel prices, smaller producers will continue to flourish.  Other researchers envision the use of solar cell for EV propulsion.  One of the most practical hybrids being tested is Briggs & Stratton's sedan which can be driven by an electric motor, gasoline engine, or both.  In June 1980, Gulf & Western announced the development of a battery system providing a 200 mi. range at 55 mph.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 30 Mar 1984 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/202247</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>PROGRESS AND FORECAST IN ELECTRIC VEHICLE BATTERIES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/197806</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The Department of Energy's (DOE) 1978 major battery development program for near-term electric vehicles (EV's), was designed to develop commercially viable batteries for commuter vehicles (urban driving range of 100 mi.) and vans and trucks (50-mi. range) by the mid-1980's.  Nine firms (battery developers) are participating in the research and development program. Three battery candidates are receiving major developmental emphasis: improved lead-acid, nickel-iron, and nickel-zinc systems.  Good progress has been made in improving battery specific energy, specific power, and manufacturing processes.  Current emphasis is on manufacturing cost reduction and enhancement of battery cycle life and reliability.  The zinc-chloride battery was recently added as a fourth candidate, and in-vehicle testing and operating characteristics evaluation are underway.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 29 Feb 1984 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/197806</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>DEVELOPMENT OF THE ZINC-CHLORIDE BATTERY FOR MOBILE APPLICATIONS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/191044</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The objectives of this program, to conduct research and development, build a zinc-chloride battery system for mobile application, and test the battery in an assigned vehicle, were accomplished.  This effort, when combined with the additional building and testing of a solely Gulf+Western-funded preproduction battery in a specifically designed four-passenger vehicle, has shown that more than 150 miles at speeds of above 40 mph can be consistently reached.  Further efforts can be expected to achieve a zinc-chloride battery with a range of more than 200 miles at the same or greater speeds.  Testing of the privately-funded battery program is continuing.  (ERA citation 07:043768)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 30 Dec 1983 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/191044</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>BATTERY-SAVING FLYWHEEL GIVES ELECTRIC CAR FREEWAY ZIP</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/196265</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Garrett-AiResearch Mfg. Co.'s electric car overcomes some major drawbacks of electric vehicles by incorporating a flywheel power system, the first application of an advanced fiber-composite flywheel.  Flywheel power provides a practical electric car for commuters by giving acceleration and start-up capabilities, a reasonable city driving range, and a good possibility for a multiyear life for the battery pack.  The Dept. of Energy-sponsored car also has a unique continuously variable transmission, an advanced lead-acid battery pack, and the first all-fiberglass chassis to meet Federal safety regulations. The battery supplies a steady current while the flywheel supplies power to propel the car from a dead stop.  The slowed-down flywheel speeds up when the car brakes.  The electric system provides the energy equivalent of a 38 mpg gasoline-powered engine but costs only about two cents/mi. to run.  If mass-produced, it would cost about 15% more than a conventional subcompact.  With one passenger, the flywheel car accelerates from 0 to 30 mph in 7 sec., from 25 to 55 for passing in 10 sec., and from 0 to 50 mph for highway merging in 15 sec.  Once on the highway, it cruises at 55 and passes at 60; the Urban Driving Schedule range is 76 mi.  A separate note indicates that an advanced zinc-chloride battery is ready for production.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 30 Dec 1983 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/196265</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>BATTERIES FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES--RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, TESTING AND EVALUATION SP-541</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/185577</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The subject matter of this collection of papers cover the broad field of batteries for electric vehicles. System analysis, costing, and testing parameters are addressed in addition to the developmental status of the various batteries currently being considered for mobile applications. Lead-acid batteries constitute a significant portion of this document. This system represents the state-of-the-art with a substantial data base; it is the standard to which all other systems are compared. Test and design information is also presented on the nickel/zinc and nickel/iron systems, which are candidates for near-term commercializations. The advanced systems discussed are: sodium/sulfur, lithium/iron sulfide, zinc/bromine, zinc/chlorine, and aluminum/air. These advanced batteries offer the potential of high specific energy and power and extended vehicle range.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 31 May 1983 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/185577</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE ZINC-CHLORIDE BATTERY IN MOBILE APPLICATIONS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/189693</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The zinc-chloride battery system is being developed for electric vehicle and load-leveling applications. The mobile configuration is the result of placing design emphasis on those areas that significantly impact electric vehicle (EV) performance and life cycle costs. Energy density, power density, packaging, and battery operating voltage primarily effect vehicle performance, which in turn effects market penetration. The zinc-chloride battery, in the mobile configuration, is described and the resultant EV performance briefly reviewed. Assuming that these vehicle characteristics meet market needs, this paper examines the life cycle cost of operating an internal combustion engine (ICE) powered van, breakeven capital cost for a comparable battery powered van, and the sensitivity of the cost elements.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 31 May 1983 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/189693</guid>
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