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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>PROGRESS AND FORECAST IN ELECTRIC-VEHICLE BATTERIES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/170586</link>
      <description><![CDATA[With impetus provided by US Public Law 94-413 (Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1976), the Department of Energy (DOE) launched a major battery development program early in 1978 for near-term electric vehicles. The program's overall objective is to develop commercially viable batteries for commuter vehicles (with an urban driving range of 100 miles) and for vans and trucks (with a range of 50 miles) by the mid-1980's. Three near-term battery candidates are receiving major developmental emphasis - improved lead-acid, nickel/iron and nickel/zinc systems. Sharing the cost with the government, nine industrial firms (battery developers) are participating in the DOE battery project. They are Eltra Corp., Exide Management and Technology Co., and Globe-Union Inc., for the lead-acid battery; Eagle-Picher Industries, Inc., and Westinghouse Electric Corp. for the nickel/iron battery; and Energy Research Corp., Exide Management and Technology Co., and Gould Inc., for the nickel/zinc battery. Good progress has been made in improving the specific energy, specific power, and manufacturing processes of these three battery technologies. Current emphasis is directed toward reduction of manufacturing cost and enhancement of battery cycle life and reliability. Recently, the zinc-chloride battery was added as the fourth candidate to the near-term battery list. Testing of the zinc-chloride battery in a vehicle and evaluation of its operating characteristics are currently under way. This paper presents the development goals, the status, and the outlook for the near-term battery program. (ERA citation 81:025878)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 23 Nov 1982 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/170586</guid>
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      <title>METAL-HALOGEN BATTERIES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/175994</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Zinc-chlorine and zinc-bromine batteries have recently found increasing attention.  This renewed interest has been stimulated by recent advances in materials coupled with several intrinsic features of both systems that make them appear as possibly attractive candidates for electric vehicle applications.  The major fundamental characteristics and design features of the two batteries are described.  The research and development status is reviewed in terms of polarization behaviour, charge and discharge performance, energy efficiency and cycle life.  Furthermore, the results of economic analyses are presented.  (Author/TRRL)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 30 Jul 1982 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/175994</guid>
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      <title>ENERGY-STORAGE SYSTEMS FOR AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION: 1979 STUDY. VOLUME 3. BATTERY/FLYWHEEL ELECTRIC VEHICLES USING ADVANCED BATTERIES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/155673</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The effect of applying flywheels to electric vehicles using advanced batteries is determined. The specific energy of the batteries is maximized at the expense of peak-power capability to optimize performance when used with flywheels. The characteristics of battery flywheel vehicles are determined and compared to all-battery vehicles subjected to the same range and peak-power specifications. Three combinations of vehicle power and range are considered for an SAE J2279aD cycle: 0.026 kW/kg and 120 km; 0.033 kW/kg and 210 km; and 0.049 kW/kg and 400 km. The combination of 0.016 kW/kg and 80 km is used with an SAE J227aC cycle. The batteries considered are lld/acid, Ni/Fe, Ni/Zn, ZnCl sub 2, LiAl/FeS sub 2, Na/S(cer), and Na/S(glass). Projected improvements in batteries and flywheels are considered over the next 20 y, based on probable and optimistic performance. The results show that flywheels do not necessarily yield a saving in vehicle mass (or range increase for constant vehicle mass). This becomes more apparent as batteries improve with time or approach optimistic performance projections. However, as the vehicle's performance level becomes more demanding, the flywheel becomes more effective for describign vehicle mass.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 16 Sep 1981 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/155673</guid>
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      <title>COST ANALYSIS OF 50 KWH ZINC--CHLORINE BATTERIES FOR MOBILE APPLICATIONS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/88871</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The costs comprising the projected selling price of a 50-kWh zinc--chlorine battery for mobile applications were analyzed. This analysis is predicated on a battery whose engineering and design specifications are well crystallized. Such a design has been proposed and a process plan conceived. This, in turn, led to a simulated manufacturing plan. This analysis showed that no critical resources or complex manufacturing operations are required. The projected cost presumes a production level of 25,000 batteries per year. In that context, a selling price was estimated, in mid-1977 dollars, to be $1645 per battery or $33/kWh. This price excludes the battery charger, for which an added $400 ($8/kWh) is considered reasonable.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 15 Sep 1979 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/88871</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ZINC--CHLORINE HYDRATE BATTERIES FOR ELECTRIC-VEHICLE APPLICATIONS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/88872</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Public acceptance of high-performance cost-effective zinc--chlorine hydrate batteries for the random-use electric-vehicle application will require meeting stringent safety and environmental requirements. These requirements revolve mainly around the question of accidental release and spread of toxic amounts of chlorine gas, the only potential hazard in this battery system. Available information in the areas of physiological effects, environmental impact, and governmental regulation of chlorine were reviewed. The design, operation, and safety features of a first commercial electric-vehicle battery were conceived and analyzed from the chlorine release aspect. Two types of accident scenarios were analyzed in terms of chlorine release rates, atmospheric dispersion, health hazard, and possible clean-up operations. The worst-case scenario, a quite improbable accident, involves the spillage of chlorine hydrate onto the ground, while the other scenario, a more probable accident, involves the release of chlorine gas from a ruptured battery case. Heat-transfer and chlorine-dispersion models, developed to analyze these scenarios, establish a firm basis for a comprehenive and factual position statement on this topic. The results of this preliminary study suggest that electric vehicles powered by appropriately designed zinc--chlorine hydrate batteries will pose negligible health or environmental hazards on the nation's streets and highways.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 15 Sep 1979 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/88872</guid>
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      <title>ADVANCED SECONDARY BATTERIES FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE PROPULSION</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/77914</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A number of near-term and advanced secondary batteries that are projected to meet performance and cost requirements for electric vehicle applications are currently under development in the U.S.A. Development of the near-term battery technology has been accelerated as a result of the impetus of the Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1976 (Public Law 94-413). Research and development of the advanced battery technology have been under way for several years, and, because this technology has recently entered the engineering stage, research and development efforts have dramatically increased. Of the near-term batteries, lead--acid, nickel--iron, and nickel--zinc systems show promise for use in vehicles with limited range and applications. Zinc--chlorine, sodium--sulfur, and lithium--metal sulfide systems are the most promising advanced batteries under development, and are expected to have considerably better performance than the near-term batteries. This paper reviews the battery development goals, and discusses the status and prospect of these battery systems.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 27 Feb 1979 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/77914</guid>
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