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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
    <image>
      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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    <item>
      <title>Uplift Resistance of Driven H-Pile in Hackensack Meadow Varved Clay</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2452754</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Value Engineering (VE) was completed to replace 9- to 10-ft diameter mono-shaft foundations, with driven end-bearing H-piles, to provide a greater value, cost-saving solution in soft varved clay at the Hackensack Meadow along NJDOT Route 7. This was part of Contract 4 of the Wittpenn Bridge replacement project. The challenging subsurface conditions included a 70-ft-deep deposit of soft highly compressible varved clay, underlain by a 50-ft deposit of glacial fluvial sandy soil, deeper glacial till, and siltstone bedrock. In the VE evaluation, there was a concern about the uplift resistance of the driven piles in the massive varved clay layer. To enhance confidence in the nominal uplift resistance, it was determined that static load tests were necessary to complement the pile dynamic analysis (PDA), using signal-matching results for the driven pile. Test results indicated small side resistance for the driven H-pile in the Hackensack varved clay. When choosing the empirical relationships to predict axial resistance, it is essential to consider a significant strength reduction in varved clay. This paper presents design and construction lessons learned to optimize the solution and yield both cost and schedule benefits for the contractor and the owner.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 30 Nov 2024 11:49:35 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2452754</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Control of Seepage Pressures beneath Cut-and-Cover Excavation in Varved Glacial Silt</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1929432</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper presents the design and implementation of groundwater cutoff and dewatering scheme for cut-and-cover construction of an underground subway station in Manhattan, New York. The excavation was approximately 60 ft wide and 1,800 ft long with depths ranging from 60 to 70 ft below street level. The invert of the station rested partially on rock at one end but mostly on weak glacial deposits for the remaining portion of the station and a transition tunnel. Groundwater cutoff was achieved using secant pile walls and diaphragm walls. A dewatering system consisting of a combination of shallow sumps and pressure relief ejector wells was adopted. Hydraulic properties of the soils were evaluated from particle size distribution, in situ falling head tests, and a full-scale pumping test. Field pumping volumes were recorded using flowmeters at discharge points to ensure pumping capacity was adequate at all times. Piezometric head within the excavation was observed using selected ejector wells as open standpipe piezometers. Hydraulic pressure build-up beneath the invert slabs were closely monitored as the pressure system was progressively deactivated to ensure the partially completed underground structure was stable against uplift water pressures. The varved character of the glacial deposits resulted in varying residual pressures acting at the invert base after the pressure relief system was de-activated.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 24 May 2022 10:08:10 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1929432</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Assessment of Varve Clays Sensitivity to Natural Structure Disturbance</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1468717</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The article deals with the problem of sensitivity of varve clays to disturbance of natural structure. Soil sensitivity can be determined by any method, enabling to make soil tests in the conditions of natural and disturbed structure. The testing method, the kind of the applied impact and the kind of deformations caused by this impact will influence assessment of sensitivity.  While assessing clay soils sensitivity the case of varve clays shows the necessity to use different methods. Applied to a number of tests the article introduces the term of sensitivity range for the soil of a particular genetic type.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 23 Jun 2017 14:03:19 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1468717</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Old Technology Enhanced by Dynamic Replacement</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1346504</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The Frank Lautenberg (FRL) intermodal facility is located in Secaucus, New Jersey. The site is an Intermodal Facility linking New Jersey Transit rail and bus systems. New Jersey Transit decided to expand the parking facility by about 9,300 m² for additional parking, a traffic circulation area, and pedestrian loading areas with bus canopies and shelters. The construction also required extending a 2440 mm diameter equalizer pipe to beyond the southern limit of the new construction. The area of the improvements was covered by very soft peat, 2.75 to 4 m thick which in turn overlies glacial lake deposits (varved clay) in thicknesses varying from 3.40 to 9.75 m, over till and bedrock. The compressible and weak peat had moisture content about 980%, a dry unit weight near 0.65 kPa, and a shear strength of less than 2.4 kPa. Groundwater levels were generally at the ground surface. The varved clays consisted of mostly a preconsolidated upper crust overlying a softer, normally consolidated clay in few borings where the layer is relatively thick. In order to develop the new area, grade had to be raised at least 1.85 m. Several options were considered to mitigate the projected shear failure of the peat and future settlements as a result of the required fills. Excavation and replacement, and piled foundations were ruled out and the two remaining options were evaluated in detail. The first option, installation of wick drains with preloading was considered problematic as the peat, is very soft and there is potential for failure of the drains themselves and the tight construction schedule. The solution that was adopted is the one believed to be used in building the rail embankment leading to the station: replacement of the very soft soils with boulders. As the soft soil was as thick as 4 m, it was decided that pushing boulders into the muck required assistance by dynamic compaction or more appropriately tamping. The purpose was to push the large boulder material to make contact with the stiffer varved clay below.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 28 Apr 2015 15:09:43 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1346504</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Full-Scale Testing of Open-Ended Steel Pipe Piles in Thick Varved Clayey Silt Deposits along the Delaware River in New Jersey</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1244666</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Although many studies have been done to investigate the axial behaviors of open-ended piles in sands, few studies have been reported for weak clayey silts. To develop reliable models for the design of open-ended steel-pipe piles driven into 29-m-thick varved clayey silt deposits, a series of full-scale field load tests including large-strain dynamic tests and static cyclic axial-compression-load tests was conducted on two groups of instrumented piles. Through analysis of the test data, soil parameters were back-calculated for estimation of pile capacities using the static-bearing-capacity formulas and cone-resistance-based methods. The comparisons between the calculated results and the field load test data demonstrated that the following considerations can be adopted in the design of static compression capacities of an open-ended pipe pile penetrating through thick varved clayey silts to end-bearing in dense cohesionless soils: (1) a fully plugged condition can be assumed, (2) cone resistance with an upper limit of 4,788 kPa (100 ksf) can be used for unit base resistance on the soil plug, and (3) exterior unit shaft resistance can be estimated using two-thirds of the total unit shaft resistance.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 14 Mar 2013 12:45:56 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1244666</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Tappan Zee Bridge Seismic Assessment</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/773071</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Tappan Zee Bridge is a 4.9 km (3 miles) long, 50-year old bridge that spans the Hudson River between the towns of Nyack and Tarrytown, north of New York City.  The bridge is the "Flag Ship" of the New York State Thruway (NYSTA) system.  The bridge carries seven lanes of traffic and is a critical link in the New York City area transportation system.  The subsurface geology of the Hudson River at the Tappan Zee Bridge site is unique.  A considerable thickness of soil overlies the bedrock.  The typical sequence of strata from the top consists of organic silt, silty clay, sand, silty clay, varved clay, glacial till and rock.  The bridge foundations are supported on different subsurface conditions.  The 2.4 km (1.5 miles) long western half of the bridge consists of 165 low level trestle spans, each 15.2 m (50 ft) long, supported on 24.4 m (80 ft) long timber piles in the organic clay and silty clay.  The top of rock is as deep as 213.4 m (700 ft) below the riverbed in this area.  To the east of the trestle spans, 76.2 m (250 ft) long deck truss spans flank the main navigational crossing.  Most of these spans are founded on cofferdam foundations supported on piles supported on rock.  The navigational main span structure is supported on four piers that are supported on partially buoyant pile support caissons.  The caissons support approximately 70% of the dead load of the structure by buoyancy.  Moderate earthquakes have occurred in New York historically and some seismic hazard does exist.  According to the United States Geological Survey, on August 10, 1884, an estimated magnitude 5.2 event hit New York City.  An earlier magnitude 5.2 earthquake had occurred on December 18, 1737.  The unique Hudson River subsurface geology at the Tappan Zee Bridge site made the need for seismic assessment imperative.  In 1994, NYSTA initiated seismic risk assessment of the Tappan Zee Bridge.  The intent of the study was to establish seismic characteristics of the existing bridge.  Site specific seismicity criteria were developed for this study.  As a result of this study, certain initial assessments regarding the seismic vulnerability and the need for seismic retrofit in various segments of the bridge were determined.  This study was completed in 1995.  In 2001, the NYSTA initiated the Tappan Zee Bridge/I-287 Corridor Study, which included an independent investigation of seismic risk assessment and retrofit scenarios.  New York City Seismic Hazard Guidelines published in 1998 were used for this study.  This study was completed in 2004.  The paper presents a qualitative comparison of the two studies and the varying degrees of seismic retrofit recommendations.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 01 Feb 2006 08:02:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/773071</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>SOILS INVESTIGATION FOR THE RAINY LAKE CAUSEWAY</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/120967</link>
      <description><![CDATA[THE RAINY LAKE CAUSEWAY IS ABOUT 2.8 MI LONG AND CONSISTS OF ALTERNATING EMBANKMENTS AND BRIDGE STRUCTURES. AT ITS LOCATION, WATER DEPTHS ARE UP TO 50 FT AND THE PREDOMINANT SOIL STRATUM IS A GENERALLY NORMALLY LOADED VARVED CLAY WITH A MAXIMUM THICKNESS OF ABOUT 50 FT. THE PAPER DESCRIBES IN DETAIL THE SOIL CONDITIONS ENCOUNTERED. BECAUSE OF THE SOFT NATURE OF THE CLAY, STRUCTURE FOUNDATIONS EXTEND TO BEDROCK. CONSTRUCTION OF EMBANKMENTS, HOWEVER, REQUIRED SPECIAL TREATMENT FOR CONSIDERATIONS OF STABILITY AND SETTLEMENT. IT WAS CONCLUDED THAT TOTAL DISPLACEMENT OF THE CLAY BY THE EMBANKMENTS WAS ESSENTIAL AND BLASTING TESTS WERE CARRIED OUT TO DETERMINE HOW THIS COULD BE EFFECTED. IN ADDITION, BORINGS WERE MADE THROUGH AN EXISTING RAILROAD FILL. THE RESULTS OF THE BLASTING TESTS, THE METHOD OF CARRYING OUT BLASTING IN PRACTICE, AND EMBANKMENT CONSTRUCTION ARE DESCRIBED. THE USE OF BLASTING TO REMOLD THE CLAY TO THE EXTENT REQUIRED TO PERMIT FULL DISPLACEMENT BY ROCK FILL, WAS FOUND TO BE EFFECTIVE IN PRACTICE. /AUTHOR/]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 15 Aug 2004 02:37:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/120967</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>SPATIAL VARIABILITY IN SOILS: HIGH RESOLUTION ASSESSMENT WITH ELECTRICAL NEEDLE PROBE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/705532</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The global response of a soil is affected by spatial as well as temporal scales. An electrical needle-size probe is developed to effectively assess one-dimensional spatial variability. The probe is designed for lab specimens (needle diameter 1.2-2.2 mm), and can be scaled for field applications. Design considerations include the tip shape, insertion disturbance, electrochemical effects, corrosion, operating frequency, and electrical resonance. Two calibration methods are presented to determine local soil permittivity and resistivity from the measured complex impedance; the simplified calibration procedure is based on resistance measurements only. The local electrical parameters permit one to infer the soil porosity and the electrolyte conductivity. The attainable spatial resolution depends on the needle diameter; submillimetric resolution is typically achieved in lab applications. Reconstituted sand specimens and undisturbed clayey specimens are tested to explore the resolution potential of this probe. The electrical needle probe clearly detects the spatial variability that results from different specimen preparation methods in sands and soil layering from natural formation histories such as those in varved clays.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 10 Aug 2004 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/705532</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>DRILLED SHAFT DEFECTS: DETECTION, AND EFFECTS ON CAPACITY IN VARVED CLAY</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/684305</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper presents the results of nondestructive integrity tests (NDTs) and axial static load tests on drilled shafts constructed in varved clay at the National Geotechnical Experimentation Site in Amherst, Mass. The shafts were constructed with built-in defects to study 1) the effectiveness of conventional NDT methods in detecting construction defects and 2) the effect of defects on the capacity of drilled shafts. Defects included voids and soil inclusions occupying 545% of the cross section as well as a soft bottom. Nine organizations participated in a blind defect prediction symposium, using a variety of NDT techniques. Most participants located defects that were larger than 10% of the cross sectional area. However, false positives and inability to locate smaller defects and multiple defects in the same shaft were encountered. Static load tests indicated that: 1) minor defects had little or no effect on skin friction; 2) a soft bottom resulted in a 33% reduction in end bearing relative to a sound bottom; and 3) reloading resulted in a 2030% reduction in the geotechnical capacity.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 03 Dec 2003 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/684305</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>USE OF AN INSTRUMENTED FLAT DILATOMETER IN SOFT VARVED CLAY</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/684309</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper describes the use of an instrumented dilatometer (IDMT) equipped with sensors designed to record the continuous displacement of the membrane, the total pressure, and the pore water pressure. The IDMT was tested in the Connecticut Valley Varved Clay at the University of MassachusettsAmherst National Geotechnical Experimentation Site. Results, presented in terms of profiles of pore pressure during insertion, corrected pressures, dilatometer indices, and shear modulus are compared to results from the standard dilatometer, the self-boring pressuremeter, the seismic cone, and the seismic dilatometer. Test results suggest that the IDMT can be used to provide accurate and cost-effective values of unload--reload modulus and, the complete pressure--displacement curve could potentially be used to develop improved correlations for strength and initial in situ stresses. In addition, the continuous pressure--displacement response and pore pressure measurements provided insight into the mechanics of the dilatometer expansion in partially drained conditions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 03 Dec 2003 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/684309</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>CONTROL OF SLIDE BY VERTICAL SAND DRAINS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/127259</link>
      <description><![CDATA[THE VIRGINIA HIGHWAY DEPARTMENT WAS RELOCATING AND WIDENING A HIGHWAY LOCATED IN ROUGH AND MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN, WITH THE MOUNTAINS BEING CUT BY NUMEROUS STREAMS FORMING A NUMBER OF WATER GAPS. EXCAVATION SHOWS THAT THE ROAD PASSED THROUGH A THICK MANTLE OF TALUS, MOSTLY SANDY SOIL, AND BOULDERS. SLIDES SHOWED EVIDENCE OF DEVELOPING IN THE TALUS MATERIAL. STUDY DISCLOSED THE PRESENCE OF A HORIZONTAL BED OF PLASTIC VARVED IMPERVIOUS CLAY ABOUT 35 FEET ABOVE GRADE. IT WAS FEARED THAT WATER DRAINING THROUGH THE LOOSE SAND WOULD REACH THIS BED OF CLAY, THEN FOLLOW IT AND BREAK OUT ON THE SLOPE. SAND DRAINS WERE INSTALLED IN HOPES THAT THE WATER WOULD BE CARRIED DOWN AND DISCHARGED IN THE POROUS MATERIAL AT THE BOTTOM. A WELL-DRILLING COMPANY CONTRACTED TO DRILL THE HOLES. THESE DRAINS WERE CONSTRUCTED AT LOW COST AND HAVE PERFORMED WELL FOR SEVEN YEARS. IT IS CONCLUDED THAT THESE DRAINS ARE OPERATING EFFICIENTLY AND CONTROLLING DRAINAGE PROBLEMS.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 07 Oct 1994 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/127259</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>LIGHTWEIGHT FILL SOLUTIONS TO SETTLEMENT STABILITY PROBLEMS ON CHARTER OAK BRIDGE PROJECT, HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/390296</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Design and construction of the Charter Oak Bridge and approaches over soft soils were complex and challenging.  To solve settlement and stability problems arising from highway and bridge construction over deep deposits of soft varved clay in the Connecticut River valley the following applications of lightweight fill were made.  Lightweight fill was placed for the high approach fill for the east abutment.  The reduced stresses imposed in the clay layer, combined with the lightweight fill's higher shear strength compared with that of an earth fill, solved this embankment stability problem.  Lightweight fill was placed in approach embankments for a replacement bridge to reduce settlements of the adjacent existing bridge.  To avoid minor settlements to an aging sanitary sewer that crossed the west approach, soil above the sewer was replaced with lightweight fill.  The resulting stress reduction balanced effects of additional stresses imposed by nearby fills and pile driving.  The overall slope stability of a wharf, with an anchored sheet pile bulkhead, was improved by replacing existing soil with a 1.5-m (5-ft) layer of lightweight fill.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 22 Apr 1994 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/390296</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>PERFORMANCE OF WICK DRAINS AT WINDSOR, CONNECTICUT</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/371552</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Reconstruction of highways in Windsor, Connecticut, required fills to separate Route I-91 from I-291.  To keep this project on schedule, the consolidation and settlement of the underlying varved clay was accelerated with vertical drains.  The soil profile and properties are described and the predicted behavior is illustrated.  The field data included settlement observations, piezometer readings, and inclinometer measurements.  The settlement observations and the piezometer readings are analyzed, independent of laboratory data, for coefficient of consolidation and total settlement.  The analytical techniques are presented.  The analyzed results compare with predicted values.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 18 Mar 1993 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/371552</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>ICE LENSING IN LAYERED SOILS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/276187</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The ice lensing phenomenon in layered soils, a condition that simulates the process of ice growth in varved soils, has been studied experimentally.  Under the limited conditions of layer thicknesses, soils used, freezing rates, and moisture conditions, ice lenses formed at the face of the fine-textured (clay) layer when it was encountered by the freezing plane.  Only minor heaving occurred in the coarse-textured (silt) layer when its thickness was increased.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 31 Oct 1986 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/276187</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>THE MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL PARAMETERS RELEVANT TO TUNNELING IN CLAYS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/276209</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A comprehensive laboratory program was carried out on specimens trimmed from 152 mm diameter piston samples of a soft silty clay and a varved clay at a tunnel site in Thunder Bay.  Results of conventional triaxial tests as well as special tests for the determination of anisotropic elastic parameters, simple shear tests, and stress path tests are presented.  Results indicate that the unloading moduli are about twice the loading moduli, the Poisson's ratios in unloading are about three times those in loading, but the independent shear modulus is relatively unaffected. While the modulus is sensitive to mode of consolidation, drainage, and direction of stress path, the stress states at failure of all the different types of tests fall close to a single envelope for compression and extension.  The choice of soil parameters for the analysis of deformation in tunneling in soft clays is discussed.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 31 Oct 1986 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/276209</guid>
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