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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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      <title>Blend Prediction Model for Vapor Pressure of Jet Fuel Range Hydrocarbons</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2636033</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The ability to predict the vapor pressure and vapor-phase composition of hydrocarbon mixtures (such as jet fuel, sustainable aviation fuel or its un-refined precursors) and partially vaporized hydrocarbon mixtures is important to simulations of processes that involve vaporization such as distillations, flash points, combustion properties of partially vaporized fuels, etc. Raoult’s Law provides a simple algebraic formula relating liquid composition and temperature to vapor composition and pressure. However, Raoult’s Law is not accurate at low mole fractions, which is typical for complex mixtures such as fuels. A common approach to correcting Raoult’s Law is to apply a scale factor, a so-called activity coefficient. Numerous models exist for predicting activity coefficients. Here we benchmark against the UNIFAC model, which predicts activity coefficients based on mole fractions, group fractions, Van der Waals volume and surface area and temperature-dependent interaction terms between groups. While this approach is truly predictive, its accuracy at very low mole fractions has not been validated, and it is computationally intensive, particularly for simulations (especially optimizations) that require vapor composition or pressure within the inner-most loop. Here we present an alternative correction to Raoult’s law, where the vapor pressure of the ith component is represented by a modified form of the Clausius–Clapeyron equation. The reference temperature (𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) is replaced by a simple algebraic function that converges to 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓  as 𝑥𝑖  approaches 1 while smoothly increasing from this value as 𝑥𝑖 decreases. Simultaneously, the heat of vaporization (Δ𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝,𝑖(𝑇) ) term is replaced by another simple algebraic expression that converges to Δ𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝,𝑖(𝑇)  as 𝑥𝑖  approaches 1 while smoothly decreasing as 𝑥𝑖  decreases. In this model, the temperature-dependent heat of vaporization is tuned at each temperature such that the Clausius–Clapeyron equation reproduces the correct vapor pressure of the neat material, while the parameterized algebraic corrections are tuned to vapor pressure data of mixtures involving n-pentane, toluene, and dodecane, where the mole fractions of n-pentane and toluene are maintained below 10%mol. Validation of the resulting model is accomplished by comparing modeled vapor–liquid equilibrium systems with experimental measurements. This approach improves the accuracy and computational efficiency of volatility predictions, thereby supporting the development, certification, and adoption of sustainable aviation fuel.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 30 Dec 2025 08:57:53 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2636033</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Resilient Modulus of Expansive Soils at High Suction Using Vapor Pressure Control</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2132063</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Robust design of pavement sections underlain by high-plasticity subgrade soils requires determination of subgrade resilient modulus over a wide range of suction to account for seasonal and diurnal variation of moisture. A laboratory experimental apparatus capable of performing suction-controlled repeated load triaxial tests at high suction (5 to 600 MPa) has been developed by integrating automated vapor pressure control to the specimen gas phase within a cyclic triaxial setup. The system eliminates limitations on applicable upper-bound suction that exist in more commonly adopted axis-translation approaches. This article describes the experimental setup, its working principle, and test procedures. Results are presented for a high-plasticity clayey soil to demonstrate testing capability for suction ranging from 5 to 100 MPa. Results show repeatability having an average coefficient of variation of less than 6 % for all loading sequences.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Mar 2023 09:17:16 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2132063</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The Permeation Effect of Ethanol-containing Fuels on Fluoropolymers</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1813046</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The barrier properties of fluoropolymers exposed to ethanol-containing fuel blends were investigated using the permeation cup, weight loss method. More specifically, permeation constant data for Fuel C, CE10, CE15, CE22, CE50, CE85 and ethanol through fluoropolymers; THV, PVDF and FEP were measured at 20, 40 and 60°C. Additional techniques such as the measurement of vapor pressure of fuel-ethanol blends using a permeation cup equipped with a pressure transducer are discussed. Vapor pressures for fuel blends were also derived using equations of state such as UNIQUAC, NRTL and Peng-Robinson models. The weight changes and volume changes of fluoropolymers in ethanol-containing fuels were measured. Finally, the crystallinity index and glass transition temperature of fluoropolymers were also measured.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 26 Sep 2022 09:12:49 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1813046</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Quantitative Measurements of Liquid and Vapor Distributions in Flash Boiling Fuel Sprays using Planar Laser Induced Exciplex Technique</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1823776</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The flash boiling phenomenon occurs at some operating conditions when fuel is directly injected into the cylinder of a homogeneous charge spark ignition direct injection (SIDI) engine due to the higher temperature of the injected fuel and lower back pressure.  A flash boiling spray has significantly different characteristics from a conventional DI gasoline spray.  In this paper, the planar laser-induced exciplex fluorescence (PLIEF) technique with two specially designed dopants of the fluorobenzene (FB) and the diethyl-methyl-amine (DEMA) in n-hexane was implemented to investigate the liquid and vapor phases of sprays from a multi-hole injector.  A vapor phase calibration was carried out to quantitatively correlate the fluorescence signal with vapor concentration.  The quantitative vapor concentration distribution is then obtained by applying the calibration.  Vapor phase calibration shows that at the temperature range of 30°C ~ 75°C, the vapor phase fluorescence is directly proportional to the vapor concentration.  The concerned effect of vapor temperature is negligible in this particular LIEF system.  For fuel sprays, the fuel temperature and back pressure play a dominant role to the spray structure under superheated conditions.  As the superheat degree increases, spray plumes (both liquid and vapor phases) from different holes of the nozzle tend to merge into each other and finally form a single plume spray near the centerline.  The vapor phase collapses more severally than the liquid phase.  At high superheat degrees, all vapor phases collapse into the centerline of the injector to form a highly concentrated "gas jet" structure.  The total vapor mass of the spray increases significantly after the collapsing, indicating dramatically increased vaporization rate due to the flash boiling.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 17 Jun 2022 09:20:13 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1823776</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A New Control Mechanism for Two-Phase Ejector in Vapor Compression Cycles for Automotive Applications Using Adjustable Motive Nozzle Inlet Swirl</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1779509</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Expansion work recovery by two-phase ejector is known to be beneficial to vapor compression cycle performance. However, one of the biggest challenges with ejector vapor compression cycles is that the ejector cycle performance is sensitive to working condition changes which are common in automotive applications. Different working conditions require different ejector geometries to achieve maximum performance. Slightly different geometries may result in substantially different coefficients of performance (COPs) under the same conditions. The ejector motive nozzle throat diameter (motive nozzle restrictiveness) is one of the key parameters that can significantly affect ejector cycle COP. This paper presents a new two-phase nozzle restrictiveness control mechanism which is possibly applicable to two-phase ejectors used in vapor compression cycles. It utilizes an adjustable swirl at the nozzle inlet to control the nozzle restrictiveness on the two-phase flow without changing the physical dimensions of the nozzle geometry. This new control mechanism has the advantages of being simple and potentially less costly. It can possibly also avoid additional frictional losses of previously proposed ejector control mechanisms using an adjustable needle. An adjustable nozzle based on this new control mechanism was designed and manufactured for experiments with R134a. The experimental results showed that, without changing the nozzle geometry, the nozzle restrictiveness on the two-phase flow can be adjusted over a wide range. Under the same inlet and outlet conditions, the mass flow rate through the nozzle can be reduced by 36% of the full load. This feature could be very useful for the future application of ejectors in automotive systems under changing working conditions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 21 Jan 2022 11:43:13 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1779509</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Influence of Engine Oil Evaporation Characteristics on Oil Consumption of Internal Combustion Engines.</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1893884</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Reduction of base oil viscosity in engine oils can contribute to further fuel economy improvement of internal combustion engines. On the other hand, the lower viscosity base oil has a concern of oil consumption increase by evaporation. Although NOACK test has been utilized as volatility index related to the oil consumption, it cannot indicate the oil consumption sufficiently. In this study, a physical property of engine oil which can show the evaporation rate is investigated. As a result, saturated vapor pressure in the temperature range of cylinder bore showed good correlation to the oil consumption in actual engine operation.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 17 Dec 2021 12:09:51 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1893884</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Performance of Two Thin Epoxy Overlays on New Concrete under Laboratory and Outdoor Exposure Conditions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1759005</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Thin epoxy overlays are used for improving the condition and extending the service life of bridge decks. The tensile bond pull-off strength, evaluated as per ASTM C1583, is used as the performance indicator. A failure in the substrate with a tensile strength of 250?pounds per square inch (psi) or greater is considered acceptable. However, the performance of in-service bridge decks when evaluated shows inconsistent results. Such studies failed to record and correlate the parameters that influence overlay performance during testing to clarify the observed variations. Laboratory studies by several researchers have documented a distinct performance difference when the overlays are exposed to room temperatures in comparison with elevated temperatures. However, the most influential parameters, such as the variation of substrate moisture against temperature and epoxy softening under elevated temperatures, were not measured and correlated to the observed performance. This study was initiated to provide clarification of the observed performance differences by evaluating the impact of concrete age at the time of epoxy application, concrete mix ingredients, exposure conditions, concrete microstructure development, and substrate moisture and temperature on the performance of two epoxy overlays. Experimental results confirm that (i) the performance of epoxy overlays improves when the concrete mix contains slag and (ii) substrate moisture vapor pressure and epoxy softening under elevated temperature negatively affect the overlay performance.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 04 Feb 2021 10:54:23 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1759005</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>DOE/DOT Crude Oil Characterization Research Study, Task 2 Test Report on Evaluating Crude Oil Sampling and Analysis Methods</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1703442</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The Crude Oil Characterization Research Study is designed to evaluate whether crude oils currently transported in North America, including those produced from "tight" formations, exhibit physical or chemical properties that are distinct from conventional crudes, and how these properties associate with combustion hazards that may be realized during transportation and handling. The current report presents results from Task 2, investigating which commercially available methods can accurately and reproducibly collect and analyze crude oils for vapor pressure and composition, including dissolved gases. Performance was directly compared to that of a well-established mobile laboratory system that currently serves as the baseline instrument system for the U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve Crude Oil Vapor Pressure Program. The experimental matrix evaluates the performance of selected methods for (i) capturing, transporting, and delivering hydrocarbon fluid samples from the field to the analysis laboratory, coupled with (ii) analyzing for properties related to composition and volatility of the oil, including true vapor pressure, gas-oil ratio, and dissolved gases and light hydrocarbons. Several combinations of sample capture and analysis were observed to perform well, though conditions apply that need to be considered carefully for given applications. Methods that perform well from Task 2 will then be utilized in subsequent Task 3 (combustion studies) and Task 4 (compositional analyses of multiple crude types), to be addressed in subsequent reports.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 08 May 2020 15:57:56 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1703442</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>DOE/DOT Crude Oil Characterization Research Study, Task 2 Test Report on Evaluating Crude Oil Sampling and Analysis Methods, Revision 1 - Winter Sampling</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1703443</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The Crude Oil Characterization Research Study is designed to evaluate whether crude oils currently transported in North America, including those produced from “tight” formations, exhibit physical or chemical properties that are distinct from conventional crudes, and how these properties associate with combustion hazards that may be realized during transportation and handling. The current report presents results from Task 2, investigating which commercially available methods can accurately and reproducibly collect and analyze crude oils for vapor pressure and composition, including dissolved gases. This issue, Revision 1 – Winter Sampling, incorporates additional seasonal data and compositional analysis results that have become available since publication of a prior report, SAND2017-12482, released in December 2017. Both reports compare performance of commercially available methods to that of a well-established mobile laboratory system that currently serves as the baseline instrument system for the U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve Crude Oil Vapor Pressure Program. The experimental matrix evaluates the performance of selected methods for (i) capturing, transporting, and delivering hydrocarbon fluid samples from the field to the analysis laboratory, coupled with (ii) analyzing for properties related to composition and volatility of the oil, including vapor pressure, gas-oil ratio, and dissolved gases and light hydrocarbons. Several combinations of sample capture and analysis were observed to perform well in both summer and winter sampling environments, though conditions apply that need to be considered carefully for given applications. Methods that perform well from Task 2 will then be utilized in subsequent Task 3 (combustion studies) and Task 4 (compositional analyses of multiple crude types), to be addressed in subsequent reports.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 08 May 2020 15:57:56 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1703443</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Pool Fire and Fireball Experiments in Support of the US DOE/DOT/TC Crude Oil Characterization Research Study</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1703444</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This report describes an experimental study of physical, chemical, and combustion characteristics of selected North American crude oils, and how these associate with thermal hazard distances resulting from pool fires and fireballs. The emergence of large volumes of tight oils within the North American Transportation system over the last decade coupled with several high-profile train accidents involving crude oils, has raised questions about the role of oil properties in general, and tight oils in particular, in affecting the severity of hazard outcomes in related crude oil fires. The objective of the pool fire experiments is to measure parameters necessary for hazard evaluation, namely, burn rate, surface emissive power, flame height, and heat flux to an engulfed object. To carry out this objective, a series of 2-m diameter indoor and 5-m diameter outdoor experiments were performed. The objective of the fireball experiments is to measure parameters required for hazard evaluation which include fireball maximum diameter, height at maximum diameter, duration, and surface emissive power using 400-gallons of crude oil per test. The crude oil samples used for the experiments were obtained from several U.S. locations, including including “tight” oils from the Bakken region of North Dakota and Permian region of Texas, and a conventionally produced oil from the U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve stockpile. These samples spanned a measurable range of vapor pressure (VPCRx(T)) and light ends content representative of U.S. domestic conventional and tight crudes. The results indicate that all the oils tested here have comparable thermal hazard distances and the measured properties are consistent with other alkane-based hydrocarbon liquids. The similarity of pool fire and fireball burn characteristics pertinent to thermal hazard outcomes of the three oils studied indicate that vapor pressure is not a statistically significant factor in affecting these outcomes. Thus, the results from this work do not support creating a distinction for crude oils based on vapor pressure with regards to these combustion events.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 08 May 2020 15:57:56 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1703444</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Crude Oil Characterization Research Study: Report to Congress</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1703445</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In response to high-profile accidents in 2013-2014 involving movement of crude by rail , the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy (DOE/FE), the U.S. Department of Transportation, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (DOT/PHMSA), and Transport Canada, Transport of Dangerous Goods Directorate (TC/TDG) commissioned a research study by Sandia National Laboratories  (Sandia) to investigate the physical, chemical, and combustion properties of crude oils, and in particular the so-called “tight oils,” like Bakken crude, that comprised the majority of crude oil rail shipments in the U.S. at the time. The DOE and DOT drafted this Report to Congress on the Crude Oil Characterization Study that responds to legislative language set forth in H.R. 22 “Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act” or the “FAST Act” (Public Law 114-94), that directs the Secretary of Energy, in cooperation with the Secretary of Transportation, to recommend regulations and legislation to improve the safe transport of crude oil. This study describes an experimental analysis of physical, chemical, and combustion characteristics of selected North American crude oils, and how these associate with thermal hazard distances resulting from pool fires and fireballs. The crude oil samples used for the experiments were obtained from several U.S. locations, including “tight” oils from the Bakken region of North Dakota and Permian region of Texas, and a conventionally produced oil from the U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve stockpile. The results indicate that all the oils tested here have comparable thermal hazard distances and the measured properties are consistent with other alkane-based hydrocarbon liquids. The similarity of pool fire and fireball burn characteristics pertinent to thermal hazard outcomes of the studied three oils indicate that vapor pressure is not a statistically significant factor in affecting these outcomes.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 08 May 2020 15:57:54 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1703445</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Eco-Friendly Usage of Aviation Gasoline; Benzene and Toluene Concentration Effect</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1682864</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The Clapeyron equation defines the relationship between temperature and vapor pressure. If the absolute temperature graph is plotted, a straight line is obtained on the y-axis of the graph against the logarithm of the vapor pressure. Each liquid and gas-phase hydrocarbon can be determined in the graph. While plotting this graph of the benzene-toluene mixture that affects fuel performance, the pressure values ??of the mixture are determined by the separation of the mixture from the air. Usually, when drawing this graph, critical temperatures and pressures are essential and more pronounced in hydrocarbons where aromatic structures are rich. To determine the vapor pressure, the atmospheric pressure, such as the boiling range of the sample, must be determined depending on the liquid boiling temperature of a reflux condenser. This means that the temperature of the fuel at a vapor pressure exceeding 760 mmHg in the same graph, apart from this temperature, is estimated. The slopes of other petroleum products can determine the slope of the obtained temperature distribution. If the boiling point cannot be determined experimentally, the temperature value in the Engler distillation curve corresponding to 20 % distillation can be taken. A proposed solution of the McCabe-Thiele method as an alternative to other methods for the distillation properties of the benzene and toluene mixture that affect the fuel efficiency is described in this study.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 23 Mar 2020 12:04:04 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1682864</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Flash vapor fuel injector development</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1625586</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Following the single-fuel initiative, the US Army is transitioning its power plants from running on various fuels to a single fuel—JP-8. Due to its low vapor pressure, JP-8 could not be used to cold start or run gasoline engines without extensive retrofit. The feasibility of running a low compression ratio, spark ignition engine with direct injection of heated JP-8 was investigated. A preliminary study found that a small piston-type spark ignition engine would not start or run on JP-8 unless JP-8 was heated to certain temperature. JP-8’s thermal decomposition, or coking, was found to be a serious issue that must be addressed if fuel heating method would be used. A flash heater concept was proposed to solve problems of JP-8’s low vapor pressure on running low compression ratio spark ignition engines, as well as JP-8’s coking issue at high temperature. A flash vapor fuel injector was designed and tested to be capable of heating up JP-8 from 26.7 °C to its vaporization temperature of >154.4 °C under one-tenth of a second at the required flow rate. The longest duration heating test (>1 million injections) did not show any coking sign with flash heating. Ignition test results show equivalent or superior ignition characteristics of pre-heated JP-8 (with heater temperature at 260.0 °C or above) provided by the developed flash vapor fuel injector, compared with non-heated aviation gasoline.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 03 Sep 2019 09:12:47 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1625586</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A Quasi-Steady Diffusion-Based Model for Design and Analysis of Fuel Tank Evaporative Emissions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1598845</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In this paper, a fuel tank evaporation/condensation model was developed, which was suitable for calculation of evaporative emissions in a fuel tank. The model uses a diffusion-controlled mass transfer approach in the form of Fick's second law in order to calculate the average concentration of fuel vapor above the liquid level and its corresponding evaporation rate. The partial differential equation of transient species diffusion was solved using a separation of variables technique with the appropriate boundary conditions for a fuel tank. In order to simplify the solution, a quasi-steady assumption was utilized and justified. The fuel vapor pressure was modeled based on an American Petroleum Institute (API) procedure using either a distillation curve or a Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) as an experimental input for the specific fuel used in the system. The advantage of this model compared to other published models is the fact that it is a non-equilibrium model that considers the effects of mass transfer between phases. The model was validated with transient data for both short (drive cycle) and long (diurnal cycle) durations. In addition, evaporation and condensation cycling simulations were performed.       ]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 28 Aug 2019 17:17:46 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1598845</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The effects of addition of co-solvents on the physicochemical properties of gasoline–methanol blended fuels</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1606605</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The scope of the work carried out is aimed to evaluate the effects of blending methanol in the gasoline pool, particularly octane number and Reid vapor pressure increase when methanol is substituting methyl-tertiary-butyl ether in the formulation of Regular and Premium base gasolines. Isopropyl alcohol and ethanol have been investigated and found to be a promising co-blending alcohol to be mixed in gasoline methanol blends. Isopropyl alcohol is most effective below 3 vol%. Ethanol has been found to be the most promising co-blending alcohol able to reduce the Reid vapor pressure increase by 1.4 psi even with concentrations in the range of 2 vol%. The addition of isopropyl alcohol to the methanol–gasoline blends has shown the ability of a ternary mixture to further reduce the Reid vapor pressure of the finished gasoline and, subject to availability and price of isopropyl alcohol, could be of interest in further formulation studies focused on maximizing the saving on finished gasoline cost by reducing the Reid vapor pressure of base gasoline and/or increasing the methanol content.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 27 Jun 2019 14:53:56 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1606605</guid>
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