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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <item>
      <title>Direct data-driven and model-based control design for an autonomous bicycle</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2751961</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Autonomous bicycles constitute challenging benchmark systems for control, due to their nonlinear, non-holonomic, and in general, underactuated, open-loop unstable dynamics. Traditional model-based controllers such as proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers and linear quadratic regulators (LQRs) can stabilize the bicycle, but rely on simplified models that may not capture unmodelled and time-varying effects. In contrast, recent direct data-driven control methods based on Willems' fundamental lemma bypass explicit modelling, yet typically assume linear time-invariant dynamic systems and require persistently exciting inputs that are difficult to apply safely on unstable systems. This thesis investigates how traditional model-based and direct data-driven control methods can be used, and combined, to balance and guide an autonomous bicycle using mainly steering actuation as input. First, PID, LQR, fuzzy controller, feedback linearization (FL), and direct data-driven controllers are designed and compared in high-fidelity simulations and experiments on an autonomous bicycle. The results show that classical model-based controllers provide strong baselines, while direct data-driven controllers can enhance performance when combined with classical controllers. Second, a unified framework is proposed in which an inner-loop FL controller stabilizes and partially linearizes the bicycle, and an outer-loop direct data-driven controller operates on the FL-stabilized system. Two different types of direct data-driven methods are evaluated in this setting: a static, nonlinear controller and the Data-enabled Policy Optimization (DeePO) algorithm. Third, the DeePO algorithm is analysed and modified to mitigate state perturbations, leading to a perturbation-free variant studied on LTI systems. Finally, a model-based PID-MPC trajectory tracking scheme is compared with a data-driven framework relying on Data-enabled Predictive Control (DeePC) for trajectory tracking, combined in a cascade architecture with the FL-DeePO setup. Simulations show that while PID-MPC achieves better tracking accuracy, the data-driven cascade attains successful trajectory tracking without relying on an explicit dynamic model.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 07 Aug 2026 08:34:35 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2751961</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>An autonomous robot bicycle for active safety tests</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2534203</link>
      <description><![CDATA[With the rapid emergence of autonomous driving technology, safety tests have become crucial for validating the functionality of these systems. High-fidelity scenarios of the tests typically involve various types of road users. To ensure safety during tests, human drivers are excluded, and instead, dummies and robots are used to simulate real road users. The test objects should follow pre-defined trajectories timely, and interact with each other. Then the on board ADAS systems' reaction may be tested in a controllable and repeatable manner. In this thesis, we developed an autonomous robot bicycle to serve in the aforementioned safety tests. To build the robot, an electric bicycle has been modified with sensors and actuators, and the target is to follow a specified trajectory with a dummy cyclist mounted on the saddle. Several modules are essential for this purpose. Firstly, a state estimator is designed to compute the bicycle's states using sensor fusion techniques. Secondly, a speed-dependent controller is developed through system identification technique, which estimates the dynamics of the unstable bicycle based on experimental data. Finally, an Iterative Learning Controller (ILC) is designed to exploit the repetitive nature of safety tests, enhancing trajectory tracking performance through iteration. These modules are detailed in the three papers included in this thesis.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 04 Apr 2025 15:14:52 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2534203</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Control and navigation of an autonomous bicycle</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2344732</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In this thesis, autonomous two-wheeled robots are considered, such as autonomous bicycles, which are naturally unstable systems, and without proper actuation, they will lose balance and fall over. Thus, before developing algorithms for higher-level functionality such as localisation and navigation of an autonomous bicycle, the balance of the bicycle needs to be addressed. This is an interesting research problem as the bicycle is a statically unstable system that has proven difficult to control, but given adequate forward velocity, it is possible to balance a bicycle using only steering actuation. Moreover, given a sufficient forward velocity, the bicycle can even become self-stabilised. In this thesis, the balance and trajectory tracking of an autonomous bicycle is investigated. First, we propose an extension of previously proposed bicycle models to capture the steering dynamics including the motor used for controlling the handlebar. Next, several control methods which can stabilise an autonomous bicycle by actuation of the steering axis and the forward velocity of the bicycle are developed. The controllers are compared in simulations on both a linear and nonlinear bicycle model. The simulation evaluation proceeds with experiments conducted on an instrumented bicycle running on a bicycle roller. Moreover, trajectory tracking of an autonomous bicycle is addressed using a model predictive controller approach where the reference lean angle is computed at every sample interval and is tracked by the balance controller in the inner loop. Finally, path planning in a static environment is considered where the proposed strategy realises a smooth path that adheres to the kinematic and dynamic constraints of the bicycle while avoiding obstacles and optimises the number of heading changes and the path distance.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 27 Feb 2024 14:24:42 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2344732</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Mobile Weigh Scales Project for the BC Ministry of Transportation</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1399651</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The Province of British Columbiaâ€™s Commercial Vehicle Safety and Enforcement (CVSE) branch recently developed a new enforcement strategy consisting of the use of mobile weigh scales. Consequently, the BC Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure (MOTI) initiated a project to construct mobile weigh scale sites throughout the Lower Mainland. At each site, CVSE officers will enforce transportation laws that govern the safe and legal operations of commercial trucking. The mobile enforcement is designed to be fast and effective, and CVSE officers will rotate between various mobile sites to minimize bypass opportunities for violators. The general location of each site was strategically selected to be along an existing highway, interchange ramp, or pullout, and therefore, each site is considered to be an addition to the existing highway infrastructure. A detailed engineering assessment, consisting of maximizing available sight distance and acceleration and deceleration lengths, often within limited space, was critical in selecting the safest possible specific location for each site. Given that the individual sites will be operated intermittently and at random, typically for no more than a few hours at a time, careful consideration was given to prevent the general public from misidentifying the pullouts as an additional travel lane or exit ramp. The general signing and illumination design approach minimizes attracting general road users to each site, as vehicles using a pullout unnecessarily could create an unsafe scenario. MOTI collaborated with CVSE to develop a Commercial Vehicle Inspection Station (CVIS) Design Guide which included geometric guidelines to aid in the design of mobile weigh scales. Each site had its own physical constraints, requiring site specific designs for pullout lengths and widths, and entrance and exit tapers. Existing posted speeds and traffic volumes, as well as expected truck usage and off-tracking, played a role in the specific design parameters developed for each site to provide sufficiently safe operations for CVSE personnel and truck drivers. When each site is in use, CVSE officers will have a presence, aiding truck drivers to decelerate in advance of the site, as well as pull into and exit the site. The CVSE officers will act as traffic control to ensure the safety of all road users travelling through the site. The mobile weigh scale project required a unique approach to balancing site constraints and design guidelines, while keeping public safety a priority.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 26 Feb 2016 10:48:11 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1399651</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A new vehicle loading standard for road bridges in New Zealand</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1341084</link>
      <description><![CDATA[With the progressive increase in heavy vehicle loadings associated with improved transport vehicle technology, the current vehicle loading standard for the design of bridges in New Zealand, first introduced in 1972, may not be appropriate for use in the design of future bridges.  This paper describes the development of a revised vehicle loading standard for the design of bridges in New Zealand.  It is based upon a literature review of current traffic loading specifications in New Zealand and overseas; the future freight need and likely configuration of vehicles to meet that need; weigh-in-motion data from current traffic; responses to an industry questionnaire on desired vehicle configurations; and loading effects from a range of legally loaded vehicles, permit application vehicles and mobile cranes.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 21 Jan 2015 11:34:53 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1341084</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Weigh-In-Motion System for the Reduction of Commercial Vehicle Traffic Delays at the Borden-Carleton, PEI Weight Inspection Station</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1249524</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper focuses on the management and traffic operations at the commercial vehicle weighing and inspection station on Route 1 east of the Confederation Bridge near Borden-Carlton, Prince Edward Island. A Mainline WIM (Weigh-In-Motion) Sorter was deployed in May-June, 2011 to reduce commercial vehicle back-ups at the station. For safety reasons, high-sided commercial vehicles are not allowed to travel over the Confederation Bridge during periods when high and/or gusty wind conditions are present on the bridge. When the bridge is re-opened following such a wind event, there is the potential for 300 to 400 trucks in queue to report to the weigh station. A Weigh-In-Motion System was installed on the mainline in advance of the weigh station to alleviate the problem of long commercial vehicle traffic queues following high wind events. The WIM Sorter System automatically directs commercial vehicles which are potentially in violation of length, height, and weight compliance limits to report to the weigh station. Commercial vehicles which are not in violation can, at the station operator's discretion, either be allowed to bypass the weigh station or be directed to report to the weigh station. This paper reviews the challenges of a compressed installation schedule, coordination among the various participants, and the subsequent operation of the station with the Mainline WIM System and accrued benefits. For the covering abstract of this conference see ITRD record number 201211RT334E.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 01 May 2013 13:21:57 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1249524</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A method to correlate weigh-in-motion and classification data</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1099118</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This report describes a method that aims to use low-cost vehicle classifiers to provide some indication of pavement loading or gross vehicle mass (GVM).  The proposed methodology in this report aims to identify, from a list of candidate WIM sites (therefore with known GVM frequency distributions), the one that can give the best indication of the GVM distribution at a  classifier site.  The method consists of two stages. The first stage determines whether the loading characteristics for a vehicle class in a jurisdiction are suitable for correlating classified counts with WIM data.  The  second stage is to identify the best site from a list of candidate WIM sites to match the data at an intelligent classifier site, if the loading characteristic of that jurisdiction is found suitable.  The method has been  found robust and all the analyses in this report appear to have produced  the right matches. It is recommended that each jurisdiction evaluate the  method with its own WIM data in the same manner as employed in this report.  The correlation methodology investigated in this report is quite general and can be employed for other applications in road use data collection. (a) Austroads Project AT1482]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 15 Apr 2011 13:10:36 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1099118</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>WEIGHING OF AXLE LOADS WITH MOBILE WEIGHING APPARATUS. 1970 CAMPAIGN</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1080523</link>
      <description><![CDATA[THE OBJECTIVES, GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION AND GENERAL OPERATION OF THE WEIGHING CAMPAIGN ARE DESCRIBED. THE RESULTS ARE PRESENTED IN THE FORM OF TABLES AND SHOW THE LARGE NUMBER OF COMMERCIAL VEHICLES WHICH ARE OVERLOADED.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 21 Nov 2010 18:09:45 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1080523</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>THE USE OF DYNAMIC WEIGHING APPARATUS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1075002</link>
      <description><![CDATA[THE AUTHOR DESCRIBES THE SITING OF THE DYNAMIC WEIGHING APPARATUS WHICH IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE COORDINATING CENTRE IN TRAPPES. THE PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION IS DESCRIBED (THE VERTICAL FORCE, APPLIED BY A MOVING LOAD AND TRANSMITTED THROUGH A RIGID METAL TRAY WHICH FORMS THE UPPER PART OF THE  DEVICE, CAUSES THE DEFORMATION OF PIEZOELECTRIC QUARTZ WHICH EMIT CHARGES PROPORTIONAL TO THIS FORCE). THE RUNNING AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE WEIGHING OPERATIONS ARE OUTLINED TOGETHER WITH THE ROLE OF THE COORDINATING CENTRE IN TRAPPES AND THE PROCESSING OF THE DATA OBTAINED. SOME RESULTS ARE PRESENTED: DISTRIBUTION OF AXLES PER WEIGHT CATEGORY, MONTHLY AND SEASONAL EVOLUTION IN HEAVY VEHICLE TRAFFIC, EVOLUTION ON A ROUTE IN THE PARIS REGION BETWEEN DECEMBER 1970 AND DECEMBER 1972.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 21 Nov 2010 14:50:48 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1075002</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>DYNAMIC WEIGHING APPARATUS - EVALUATION OF THE NUMBER AND WEIGHT OF VEHICLES - PROTECTION OF STRUCTURES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1074526</link>
      <description><![CDATA[DETAILS ARE GIVEN OF THE DYNAMIC WEIGHING APPARATUS DEVELOPED BY THE MINISTRY OF THE EQUIPMENT FOR EVALUATING THE EFFECTS OF HEAVY TRAFFIC ON THE STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF PAVEMENTS OF A KNOWN DESIGN. THESE DEVICES CAN ALSO  BE USED TO OBTAIN AN OVERALL KNOWLEDGE OF TRAFFIC, TO DETECT AND EVALUATE EXCESS LOADS, TO PROTECT STRUCTURES, ETC. THEY ARE USED AS AN ADDITION TO EXISTING DEVICES TO OBTAIN DATA ON TRAFFIC VOLUME (NUMBER AND AXLE LOADS  OF VEHICLE, CLASSIFICATION OF VEHICLE PER WEIGHT), TRAFFIC COMPOSITION IN TIME, TRAFFIC FLOW AND SAFETY (PEAK HOUR FLOW, DIVERSION TRAFFIC) CONTROLS (DETECTION OF EXCESS LOADS, PROTECTION OF PAVEMENTS AND ENGINEERING STRUCTURES WITH A LIMITED LOAD). THESE DEVICES HAVE BEEN OPERATIONAL SINCE 31ST DECEMBER 1972. SEE ALSO IRRD ABSTRACTS NOS 102074 TO 102087.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 21 Nov 2010 14:38:39 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1074526</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>NEW WEIGHING EQUIPMENT USED IN FRANCE TO CONTROL EXCESS LOADS OF HEAVY VEHICLES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1074525</link>
      <description><![CDATA[THE EQUIPMENT DESCRIBED WILL BE USED TO CONTROL WHETHER NEW HIGHWAY CODE REGULATIONS ARE OBSERVED. THOSE REGULATIONS CONCERN THE LOWERING OF PERMISSIBLE AXLE LOAD FROM 13 TO 11,500 TONNES. THE 13-TONNE AXLE LOAD WAS OFTEN  EXCEEDED IN THE FAST AND VARIOUS CONTROLS HAVE SHOWN THAT AXLE LOADS FROM 16 TO 19 TONNES WERE FREQUENTLY FOUND, THE ABSOLUTE RECORD BEING 24  TONNES. THIS NEW REGULATION AIMS AT PROTECTING PAVEMENTS FROM RAPID DAMAGE FROM EXCESS LOADS, AT INCREASING SAFETY ON THE ROAD FOR OTHER ROAD USERS, FRONTAGERS AND HEAVY-LORRY DRIVERS, THE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS OF LORRIES NOT  BEING DESIGNED FOR SUCH EXCESS LOADS. SEE IRRD ABSTRACTS NOS. 102074 TO 102087.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 21 Nov 2010 14:38:38 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1074525</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>BUILT-IN WEIGHING DEVICE FOR VEHICLES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1071516</link>
      <description><![CDATA[THE CONTROL OF VEHICLES WITH OVERLOAD IS CARRIED OUT WITH THE HELP OF FIXED OR MOBILE WEIGHING SCALES, WHICH REQUIRE HANDLING AND MUST BE SET UP ON  SPECIALLY PREPARED AREAS. THE AIM OF THIS RESEARCH IS TO EXAMINE WHETHER  IT WOULD BE POSSIBLE TO DEVELOP A WEIGHING DEVICE INCORPORATED IN THE VEHICLE WHICH WOULD ENABLE (1) HAULIERS TO EASILY CHECK THE LOAD OF VEHICLES, AND (2) CONTROLLERS TO CARRY OUT THE CONTROL OF OVERLOAD.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 21 Nov 2010 13:01:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1071516</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>MEASURING TECHNIQUES FOR OBSERVING HIGHWAYS IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1064635</link>
      <description><![CDATA[FOR EVALUATING THE BEHAVIOUR OF ROAD SURFACINGS AND THEIR CONDITION MEASURING TECHNIQUES HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED IN MANY GERMAN STATES WHICH ARE OF HIGH PERFORMANCE, NON-DISTURBING, AND WHICH PROVIDE AN ABUNDANCE OF INFORMATION.  THEY RECORD THE ROAD SURFACE CONDITION, THE EFFECTS OF TRAFFIC LOADING AND THE VARIATIONS IN THE WEARING COURSE WITH TIME.  THE FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF HIGHWAYS HAS THE FOLLOWING EQUIPMENT IN USE AT PRESENT; THE PLANOGRAPH FOR ASCERTAINING SURFACE UNEVENNESSES, THE STUTTGART FRICTION MEASURER  FOR ESTABLISHING SKIDDING RESISTANCE CO-EFFICIENTS USING A TOWED WHEEL WITH BLOCKING DEVICE, THE LONGITUDINAL PROFILE MEASURER FOR MEASURING THE RIDING QUALITY, CONTINUOUS PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORDING OF SURFACE DAMAGE, MEASURING TECHNIQUES FOR OBTAINING HIGHWAY DATA USING ROTARY EQUIPMENT AND CAMERAS, AXLE LOAD MEASUREMENT, AND THE BENKELMAN BEAM MEASURING VEHICLE FOR ESTABLISHING THE DYNAMIC DEFORMATION MODULUS OF THE SURFACING.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 21 Nov 2010 09:04:32 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1064635</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>TILTING TECHNIQUE FOR THE BODIES OF RAILWAY CARRIAGES ON BENDS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1059720</link>
      <description><![CDATA[CURRENT TRENDS IN RAILWAYS, PARTICULARLY FOR PASSENGER TRAFFIC, ARE AN INCREASE IN SPEED AND COMFORT.  HOWEVER, THE ALIGNMENT OF THE TRACKS, OFTEN 100 YEARS OLD, PRESENTS DIFFICULTIES IN OBTAINING HIGH SPEEDS.  THE MOST ECONOMICAL SOLUTION FOR OBTAINING A TRACK SUITABLE FOR A WIDER RANGE OF SPEEDS AND AXLE LOADS CONSISTS IN TILTING THE BODY OF THE CARRIAGE.  THIS TILTING SOLUTION, ADOPTED BY RENFE IS REPORTED HERE.  THIS ALLOWS: (1) AN INCREASE IN SPEED ON CURVES, (2) INCREASE IN COMFORT AND (3) REDUCTION IN JOURNEY TIMES.  A METHOD HAS BEEN ESTABLISHED WHICH PERMITS THE ANALYSIS OF THE SHORTENING OF JOURNEY TIMES RESULTING FROM THE USE OF THE TILTING TRAIN  PRINCIPLE, ON THE PRINCIPAL LINES OF THE SPANISH NETWORK.  THE STUDY COMPRISES THE FOLLOWING PHASES: (1) DEFINITION OF IDEAL PERFORMANCES IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE UIC STANDARDS FOR "DESIRABLE JOURNEY TIMES"; (2) ANALYSIS OF THE PARAMETERS WHICH LEAD TO AN INCREASE IN SPEED; (3) QUANTITATIVE EVALUATION OF CONDITIONS; (4) SELECTION AND PRIORITY ON LINES.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 21 Nov 2010 06:47:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1059720</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>TRAFFIC ANALYSIS AND CONTROL BY MEANS OF MAGNETIC LOOPS AND DYNAMIC WEIGHING BRIDGES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1057952</link>
      <description><![CDATA[THIS ARTICLE DESCRIBES THREE TYPES OF SENSOR WHICH FACILITATE THE CREATION OF A COMPLETE STATION FOR THE DETAILED ANALYSIS OF TRAFFIC.  THE SENSORS  RECORD THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION PER VEHICLE, (1) DATE THE VEHICLE PASSED, INTERVAL BETWEEN THE PASSING OF THE AXLES (TIME SENSOR WITH AN ELECTRONIC CLOCK AND CHRONOMETER); (2) VEHICLE AS AN INDIVIDUAL UNIT AND IMMEDIATE  SPEED (VEHICLE-SPEED SENSOR WITH MAGNETIC LOOPS); (3) INDIVIDUAL AXLE LOADS (FOR HEAVY VEHICLES) (WEIGHT SENSOR USING A DYNAMIC WEIGHBRIDGE).  THE  DATA PROVIDED BY THESE THREE SENSORS ARE ORGANIZED, CONTROLLED AND SENT TO A MAGNETIC CASSETTE RECORDER.  THE NUMBER OF POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS OF THE VARIOUS PARAMETERS RECORDED FACILITATES THE PROCESSING OF TRAFFIC DATA UNDER VARIOUS ASPECTS IN MANY DIFFERENT FIELDS.  BECAUSE OF ITS MOBILITY, THE SYSTEM IS VERY FLEXIBLE AND CAN BE USED FOR VARIED APPLICATIONS ON THE  NETWORK.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 21 Nov 2010 06:05:01 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1057952</guid>
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