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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <title>Determinants and deterrents of urban cycling : evidence from Europe</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2666531</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Urban cycling contributes to climate-neutral and resilient mobility, and its uptake hinges on a blend of behavioural, environmental, and infrastructural forces. This licentiate thesis brings together evidence from three empirical studies conducted in Braga, Istanbul, and Tallinn (papers A and B), as well as Paris and Barcelona (paper C) to identify and quantify drivers of cycling and to translate findings into insights that matter for policy. The first paper shows that a GPS-verified, gamified reward scheme, involving roughly 1,500 participants increased weekday cycling. The second paper applied mixed ordinal probit models to six months of data from the same reward scheme and finds that higher wind speeds and private-car ownership reduce weekly cycling, whereas public-transport use boosts it. The third paper employs ARIMAX time-series models of bicycle counts and identifies a pandemic step change, accounting for about 35,000 added bicycle trips per week in Paris and 26,000 trip per week in Barcelona. It also finds the added effects of infrastructure initiatives and lockdown stringency. The three studies highlight three overarching drivers of cycling: behavioral incentives, environmental conditions, and rapid-built infrastructure. These factors contribute to explaining when, where, and for whom cycling gains materialize. This thesis contributes with robust multi-city evidence, suggesting that targeted rewards, wind-protected lane design, car-access management, and transit integration can speed up modal shifts. It provides guidance to sustain and grow urban cycling across diverse city contexts, aligned with European climate goals.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Feb 2026 08:33:23 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2666531</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>“Green is the new black”: the motives and barriers of adopting electric cars in an alpine European city</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2367057</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The ever-growing environmental concerns linked to transport sectors demand a wider market share of electric vehicles (EVs). Although Australia is considered a slow adopter of EVs (3.4%) compared to the global rate (8.6%), the recent changes in federal policies to exempt EVs from fringe benefits tax may increase the EVs ownerships in the coming years. However, the effectiveness of these initiatives is largely unknown and subject to study from users' point of view. Additionally, the existing charging infrastructures are already challenged to cope with the rate of EV sales, and new infrastructure should facilitate users an easier transition from combustion cars to EVs. Innsbruck, the fifth-largest city in Austria has similar EV ownership trends and government incentive changes to Australia's current EV adoption rate. The aim of this paper is to share the lessons from one of Europe's emerging EV-adopting cities, and the insights gained from this study can be customised into the Australian context to obtain a thorough understating of the challenges and prospects of EV adoption in Australia. This study has used qualitative approach to understand the challenges related to future electric vehicle adoption from both the existing EV owners' and potential EV owners' perspectives. The reasons for buying EVs, perceived barriers of EVs, charging habits, and improvement aspects (e.g., the location of EV chargers and charging kinds) are explored with 18 semi-structured interviews. The thematic analysis shows that functional barriers of EVs (e.g., lengthier charging time, range anxiety, inadequate charging infrastructures) are the main perceived barriers. Whereas social norm is one of the main motivators to purchase EVs. Furthermore, public charging stations with additional facilities (e.g., supermarkets, restrooms, wi-fi hotspots, co-working spaces) and transparent, standardized charging costs can encourage a larger market adoption of EVs.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 15 Apr 2024 14:21:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2367057</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Anreize für sicherere Mobilität</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2353358</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Das Projekt hat die Untersuchung der Nutzung von Anreizen zur Erhöhung der Verkehrssicherheit höherer Altersgruppen zum Ziel. Im Mittelpunkt stehen die Verkehrssicherheit in der aktiven Mobilität sowie Angebote, die Alternativen zum motorisierten Individualverkehr (MIV) für vulnerable Bevölkerungsgruppen aufzeigen. Es soll untersucht werden, wie sich der Einsatz von Anreizen zur Teilnahme an Sicherheitsmaßnahmen und Programmen auf die Teilnahme daran auswirkt. Beantwortet werden sollen die Fragen: 1. Wie wirkt sich das Angebot von Seniorentickets im Tausch gegen die Fahrerlaubnis und die Ausgestaltung des Angebots durch die Kommunen auf die Teilnahme aus? 2. Welchen Einfluss hat ein Anreiz zur Teilnahme an sicherheitsfördernden Programmen für Pedelec-Nutzende auf die Teilnahmebereitschaft und wie sieht eine effektive Ausgestaltung aus? 3. Welche Instrumente sind geeignet, die Mobilität im Altersverlauf zu erhalten und dabei die Verkehrssicherheit unter wechselnden Anforderungen sicher zu stellen? ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH: The aim of the project is to analyse the use of incentives to increase the road safety of older age groups. The focus is on road safety in active mobility as well as on offers that demonstrate alternatives to motorised private transport (MIT) for vulnerable population groups. The aim is to investigate how the use of incentives to participate in safety measures and programmes affects participation. The following questions are to be answered: 1. How does the offer of senior citizens' tickets in exchange for a driving licence and the way they are offered by the local authorities affect participation? 2. What influence does an incentive to participate in safety-promoting programmes for pedelec users have on the willingness to participate and what does an effective design look like? 3. Which instruments are suitable for maintaining mobility in the course of ageing and ensure road safety under changing requirements?
]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 19 Mar 2024 06:23:14 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2353358</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Update to 2013 report: driver incentive and reward schemes</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2289126</link>
      <description><![CDATA[There is some evidence in Bailey (2013) that rewards can be effective in encouraging safer driving if they are specifically tailored to groups such as young drivers, some work road safety settings, and/or specific driving behaviours such as speeding. However, very few schemes are evaluated for effectiveness. Experimental studies of schemes since 2013, particularly those that reward specific driving behaviours and/or of specific categories of driver types generally afford favourable results, along with a more advanced understanding of when, where, how, and why reward schemes work well (or not). This research has been substantially assisted by sophisticated driver monitoring and feedback technologies such as telematics. However, reward schemes must be seen to use clear evaluation processes of drivers’ performances, as unfair systems may well lead to complaints and repudiation of the schemes. Moreover, not all drivers respond in the same way or to the same extent to reward schemes, thus making wide-scale reward schemes of questionable cost-benefit effectiveness. Some drivers, particularly some young drivers, are motivated more by a sense of thrill when engaging in risky behaviours, than in any tangible reward for driving safely; penalties are likely to be more effective for habitually risky drivers. Effective reward schemes in fleet settings are best embedded in a company’s safety culture. Fleet reward schemes can improve both eco-friendly behaviours and safe driving. Small financial rewards consistently given are likely to be more effective in improving safe behaviours than large rewards given occasionally. Reward schemes considered likely to bring most benefit include: (i) rewarding offence-free driving periods by provisional licence drivers; (ii) telematics-based monitoring of driver performance by insurance companies; and (iii) reward schemes for drivers in fleet settings. Importantly though, any establishment of new reward schemes or support for existing ones, should be accompanied by evaluations of those schemes’ effectiveness in improving driver behaviour, along with commitment to modify or abandon the schemes as needs be.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 09 Nov 2023 16:03:05 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2289126</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Australia and New Zealand roads capability analysis 2022-2032</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2289116</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The Australia and New Zealand Roads Capability Analysis 2022- 2032 report evaluates the skills and capabilities required by Austroads member agencies in the next decade to achieve their service objectives. It compares these requirements with the current and projected future workforce, identifies potential workforce capability gaps, and offers recommendations to help agencies and related stakeholders (including the government, education sector, and industry) address these gaps. The study identifies capability gaps in New South Wales, New Zealand, and the Australian Capital Territory in the next 1-3 years and stresses the importance of implementing measures like enhancing productivity, reducing workforce attrition rate, attracting skills from other sectors, introducing incentives for the roads related education sector, and considering policy changes to attract more skilled migration. For the other jurisdictions, there are risks in maintaining the existing workforce and attracting skills, given the rising construction activity in other sectors. The report highlights shortages in specific roles and competencies, emphasising the importance of investing in education pathways.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 09 Nov 2023 16:02:54 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2289116</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Identifying MaaS schemes that maximise benefits to society through an economic appraisal framework</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2259719</link>
      <description><![CDATA[There is strong evidence of the impact Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) can have on individual travel behaviour. Research and trials to date have examined how the composition and incentives built into MaaS bundles can encourage behaviour that aligns with broader policies, such as increased use of public transport. The research and trials suggest that MaaS will benefit society, however, there has been limited analysis of the economic and policy implications. This paper identifies the most beneficial form of MaaS scheme using a robust economic appraisal framework. It first reviews the literature to gather evidence on the economic impacts of MaaS. It then empirically analyses the economic impacts of a hypothetical scheme in Perth, Western Australia, which are then compared with other capital city cases. This paper estimated that the net economic benefits of between $0.98 and $1.71 per vehicle removed from the Perth road network when MaaS subscribers shift to public transport, active transport and/or taxis. This paper also identified that MaaS schemes that promote a shift to public and active transport bring the greatest benefits to society, compared to the continued use of cars. The economic appraisal contributes to transport policy discussions of MaaS schemes that maximise societal benefits.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 02 Oct 2023 11:28:43 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2259719</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Measuring the distributive impacts of electric vehicle policies</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2239911</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The number of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) sold in Australia is low compared to other Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, primarily because of a historic lack of supportive policies. However, several Australian States have recently announced or are developing electric vehicle (EV) policy packages to boost BEV uptake. Veitch Lister Consulting (VLC) has developed a model to assess the impacts of EV policies. This paper introduces a spatial EV uptake model and illustrates how it can be used to assess the aggregate and distributive impact of policies. This paper explains the methodology behind the model and presents its key inputs and parameters. The impacts of two potential EV-related policies are also analysed: the introduction of road-user charging and an exemption of EVs from transfer duty.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 06 Sep 2023 14:04:43 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2239911</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A Collective Incentive Strategy for Ridership Rebound and Peak Congestion Management In Mass Transit Systems</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2232083</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In view of the dual requirements for increasing ridership in transit systems and reducing passengers’ interactions post-COVID, an integrated demand management strategy should be designed to improve both the attraction of transit system and the services’ safety. Previous studies focus on the design of fare policy mostly based on a single target (reduce congestion or increase ridership), which haven’t incorporated the mechanism of off-peak discounted fare and transit passes in an integrated system. Transit pass with a discount for off-peak travel is only investigated in few empirical studies (Adnan et al., 2020; Lachapell et al., 2022), while the current mechanism of off-peak transit pass is lack of theory basis. To this end, this paper introduces a collective incentive strategy where commuters enjoy a fare discount by purchasing an off-peak pass. The fare discount of the off-peak pass is determined collectively by the total number of purchases. We established a departure time equilibrium model and considered the demand elasticity of commuters. The goal of this paper is to analyze equilibrium properties and optimize the performance of off-peak transit pass scheme for managing congestion (queuing and crowding) and rebound ridership in a mass transit system by using a departure time equilibrium model that incorporates user crowding cost, queuing time cost, and schedule delay cost. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 developed the original departure time equilibrium model considering elastic demand. Section 3 introduced the collective transit pass systems and established a bi-level model for the transit pass optimization. Section 4 analyzed the case studies for the gain and loss of the transit pass systems. Section 5 concludes the study and discussed future research.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 25 Aug 2023 09:18:24 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2232083</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Decarbonisation and the pricing of road transport: summary and conclusions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2224134</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Policies to mitigate climate change require a fundamental change to taxation in the transport sector. The shift to electric vehicles and continuing improvements in the fuel efficiency of internal combustion engine vehicles will extinguish revenues from fuel taxes. This report assesses the options for reforming vehicle and road-use taxes. It identifies potential packages of taxes and charges that could generate revenue more efficiently and maintain and enhance incentives for the transition to a sustainable transport system.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 03 Aug 2023 08:38:59 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2224134</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>How to Fairly Evaluate Eco-Driving? An Eco-Score System Developed Using Vehicle Characteristics and Traffic Conditions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2154937</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The usage-based insurance (UBI) system records real-time driving behaviour such as speed, acceleration, and braking and adjusts the insurance premium accordingly. Driving behaviour is collected by in-vehicle devices, or applications installed on the driver’s mobile phone. UBI mobile applications can provide feedback to drivers as an eco-score representing the environmental impacts of their driving behaviour to incentivize more drivers to enroll in the tracking program. In addition, eco-score systems have been adopted in commercial fleet companies to reward fuel-efficient driving behaviour (McConky, Chen, & Gavi, 2018). Recent studies have shown that a considerable reduction of 5%-25% in fuel consumption and emission could be achieved after the application of eco-driving practice (Ma et al., 2019). Given that external factors have significant impacts on fuel consumption and emissions, there is a lack of eco-score systems that evaluate a driver’s behaviour with consideration of surrounding traffic conditions (Alam & McNabola, 2018). Most eco-score systems capture the effects of driving behaviour, road grade and basic vehicle characteristics (e.g., vehicle mass and model year) on trip-level emission intensities for internal combustion engine vehicles. This study improves upon these eco-score systems by incorporating additional vehicle characteristics (e.g., fuel type and engine type) and on-road traffic conditions in the emission estimation and eco-scoring algorithms. It develops two eco-scoring methods: Method 1 estimates a vehicle-specific eco-score by incorporating vehicle characteristics in the emission estimation; Method 2 improves the eco-scoring system by considering surrounding traffic conditions (e.g., road category, traffic congestion level) to demonstrate the significance of disentangling the effects of true driving behaviour from the effects of traffic congestion on driving.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 21 Jul 2023 17:21:18 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2154937</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>How improving public transport and shared mobility can reduce urban passenger emissions: scenario results and policy findings</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2145634</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study assesses policies to reduce private vehicle use and carbon emissions in urban passenger transport. It finds that a two-pronged approach of improving public transport services and creating incentives to increase the use of shared services can effectively reduce emissions. This is particularly so when combined with infrastructure investment and land-use measures that prioritise collective and active modes. However, further action will still be required to meet the decarbonisation goals of the Paris Agreement, including making paratransit vehicles more efficient and developing public transport infrastructure.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 03 Apr 2023 16:40:47 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2145634</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Incentives to encourage safer driving behaviour</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2112878</link>
      <description><![CDATA[While some individual studies on safer driving incentives and policy interventions are available, a joined-up and complementary review of their impact and implications is surprisingly lacking not only in New Zealand but overseas. This report is an attempt to close the gap. It reviews available international literature on incentives as well as current best practices in different jurisdictions. The evidence gathered for this report is supplemented with insights from interviews conducted with key international and national representatives in this field. In addition to a discussion of principles for successful incentives in the context of safer driving, the findings in this report outline incentive-based approaches and practices ranging from reward schemes to in-vehicle feedback and external feedback signs. The report also identifies challenges such as the lack of proper evaluation of existing interventions, as well as opportunities and avenues for future research. In addition to general recommendations to support safer driving incentive success, we provide specific recommendations for workplace-based incentives, infrastructure-based incentives, and incentives aimed at young/novice drivers. The insights from this report will help to inform and explore potential opportunities for incentives in New Zealand in the context of the next Road to Zero action plan.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 06 Feb 2023 15:41:58 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2112878</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Electric vehicles and the grid: N1 opportunity assessment: final report 2021</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1896513</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This project assembled an industry reference group representing a wide cross section of stakeholders who provided their expert opinions of the key areas of research required to overcome a long list of potential barriers to successful integration of EVs into the grid and compiled a roadmap of research opportunities to address those barriers. The key areas of targeted research identified are: 1. data collection to better understand current trends and behaviours, 2. business model design (including tariff structures) to incentive beneficial charging patterns, 3. better understanding of consumer behaviour in relation to EV changing, 4. impacts of EV adoption on mobility and urban design, and 5. design of standards and protocols for EV charging equipment and communication devices between EVs, chargers and distribution networks, retailers or other third parties. This report provides a comprehensive literature review which sets the basis for a detailed barrier analysis. The output of an industry reference group workshop led to the creation of a list of opportunities that were then collated into the Research Roadmap.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 09 Dec 2021 10:19:07 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1896513</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Megabang for megabucks: driving a harder bargain on megaprojects</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1857856</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Taxpayers end up paying too much for major road and rail projects in Australia because governments don’t drive a hard bargain on contracts with the big construction firms. Governments should stop worrying about the profitability of the industry and start delivering quality services at the lowest long-term cost to the community. Australia’s transport infrastructure costs are above the global average, and there is a culture of caving in to contractor demands after contracts are signed. About 25 per cent of projects end up costing taxpayers more than the government expected when construction started. To get quality infrastructure at a sharp price, competition is fundamental. But as the size of projects has grown, so has the size of contracts – and with larger contracts, competition inevitably thins. Few firms have the technical and financial capability to win contracts worth $1 billion or more. Yet Australian governments often give undue priority to domestic experience, making it hard for international firms to win contracts. State governments often rush projects to market, so they can announce and start them before the next election. But in the rush, governments don’t always identify or mitigate expensive problems such as contaminated soil, and they’re not systematic enough about dividing projects into bundles or choosing the contract type with the right incentives for the particular job. Governments should only sign contracts that they are prepared to enforce, and should award all infrastructure contracts through an open tender process.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 08 Jun 2021 12:31:37 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1857856</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Policies and measures to reduce air emissions from shipping: Recommendations for Swedish stakeholders</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1737789</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The purpose of the “Carrots and sticks” project is to identify the policy instruments and measures that can reduce air emissions from shipping and contribute to the fulfilment of the national Swedish environmental quality objectives Reduced climate impact, Clean Air, Natural acidification only and Zero eutrophication in a cost-effective way. The climate objective has quantified targets 2030 and 2045; the EU and the IMO (International Maritime Organization) have also set up climate goals. The identification of the most relevant policies and measures is based on a global review of the policies and measures. Available ex-ante and ex-post analyses and studies that estimate the potential to reduce air emissions from shipping are analysed. It is shown that most policies have been implemented in Northern Europe and North America. Specific circumstances for Sweden are considered. The visiting profile is extreme, as just a few ferries perform about two-thirds of the calls and cause about half of the air emissions while one-third of the ships call into Sweden less frequently than once a year. The share of international transport is high and growing, which implies the importance of IMO and EU policies as well as the strong cooperation with neighbouring countries to reduce the air emissions from shipping. Air emissions of sulphur dioxides (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and particulate matter (PM) and greenhouse gases (GHG) from shipping in the waters in and close to Sweden 2015 are estimated based on the bottom-up approach using AIS-data (Automatic Identification System) and other sources. Four BAU-scenarios (business as usual) are developed for the target years 2030 and 2045. They comprise different assumptions about the development of transport demand, energy efficiency improvement and the fuels used. The calculated volumes of air emissions are highest when the assumptions of the Swedish public agencies are used. It is recommended to consider estimates from different sources in the next Swedish forecasts and scenarios.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 08 Sep 2020 14:37:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1737789</guid>
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