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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
    <image>
      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
      <url>https://trid.trb.org/Images/PageHeader-wTitle.jpg</url>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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    <item>
      <title>Insight into mechanical properties and damaging evolution of base materials incorporating 80 % phosphogypsum for pavement application</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2566363</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study develops sustainable road base materials by utilizing a high dosage of phosphogypsum (PG) at 80 %, combined with ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), alkali activators, and ordinary Portland cement (OPC). The methodology includes systematic mechanical testing, microstructural analyses (SEM, XRD, EDS), and environmental assessment through heavy metal leaching tests. The novelty of this work lies in evaluating the synergistic effects of alkali activators and OPC on the mechanical properties, microstructure, and environmental safety of PG-based materials. The results show that the addition of OPC and alkali activators significantly enhances compressive strength and mitigates brittle failure at peak stress. A mixture consisting of 80 % PG, 17 % GGBS, and 3 % OPC achieved a compressive strength of 9.37 MPa at 7 days with excellent cost-effectiveness (60.44 yuan/m3). At 3 % cement replacement, the Ca/Si ratio reached a minimum of 325.53 % at 28 days, with compressive strength peaking at 11.36 MPa and stiffness at 852.59 MPa. Microstructural observations confirm pore refinement and increased hydration products, further enhancing performance. Heavy metal leaching tests indicate effective immobilization of contaminants, ensuring compliance with environmental regulations. This research not only advances the understanding of PG-based composite materials but also provides a promising, sustainable, and low-cost approach for road construction, with significant implications for promoting circular economy principles in the construction industry by facilitating industrial waste recycling while ensuring environmental safety and economic feasibility.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 24 Jul 2025 11:29:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2566363</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Application of ICP-MS Radionuclide Analysis to "Real World" Samples of Department of Energy Radioactive Waste</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1894393</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Disposal of Department of Energy (DOE) radioactive waste into repositories such as the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) and the Nevada Test Site (NTS) requires characterization to ensure regulatory and transportation requirements are met and to collect information regarding chemistry of the waste for processing concerns. Recent addition of an inductively coupled plasma quadrupole mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) in a radioactive contaminated laboratory at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) has allowed the evaluation of advantages of using ICP-MS over traditional techniques for some of these characterization needs. The measurement of long-lived beta nuclides by ICP-MS has resulted in improved detection limits and accuracy than the traditional counting techniques as well as reducing the need for separation/purification techniques which increase personnel exposure to radiation. Using ICP-MS for the measurement of U isotopes versus the traditional Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometer (TIMS) technique has reduced cost and time by more than half while still maintaining the needed accuracy to determine risk assessment of the waste tanks. In addition, the application of ICP-MS to ORNL waste tank characterization has provided the opportunity to estimate non-routine radionuclides and non-routine metals using a rapid low cost screening method. These application methodologies and proficiencies on ORNL waste samples are summarized throughout the paper.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 10 Jan 2022 16:44:58 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1894393</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Application of the LR-56 at DOE Facilities in the United States</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1896403</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The ability to ship Type B liquid packages will be necessary for the nuclear industry to meet the energy production requirements of the next century. There are no packages licensed in the United States for transportation of large quantities of such liquids at present. Packages designed for transporting liquids must address technical challenges and incorporate features which are not common to packages designed for solid contents. These issues and the methods of addressing them are illustrated by the safety analysis performed for utilization of the LR-56 Liquid Package at US DOE facilities.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 10 Jan 2022 16:44:58 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1896403</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Application of the RADTRAN 5 Stop Model</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1862906</link>
      <description><![CDATA[It is the intent of this paper first to compare results from RADTRAN 4 (Neuhauser and Kanipe, 1992) and RADTRAN 5 for the old, low-resolution form of input data, and then to demonstrate what effect the new data and input format have on stop-dose estimates for an individual stop and for a hypothetical shipment route. Finally, these estimated public doses will be contrasted with doses calculated for a special population group - inspectors.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 27 Sep 2021 18:21:57 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1862906</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Nuclear Waste Transportation: Quality Assurance and Control</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1838519</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Nuclear energy is one of the most strategically important areas in the majority of countries today. Therefore, the issues of transportation of nuclear waste related primarily to security and quality are the most acute problems in this industry. This article discusses the key aspects and tasks related to ensuring the security of the transportation and disposal of nuclear waste, an analysis is made from the point of view of regulation of this industry in various countries. Moreover, the technological support of this process is considered. In this regard, the issue of forming an integrated approach to organizing the transportation of nuclear waste is relevant, which includes various aspects: organizing business processes, organizing IT services and organizing infrastructure. The result of this study is a list of requirements for a reference model for the transportation of nuclear waste, which can potentially be used as an industry standard in different countries.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 25 May 2021 16:20:02 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1838519</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Special Routing of Spent Fuel Shipment Study</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1493765</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Special rail routing of spent fuel shipments from commercial nuclear power plants to Away-From-Reactor (AFR) storage and disposal sites has been proposed as one means of reducing the consequences and severity of radioactive materials accidents in areas of high population density. Whether or not special rail routing of spent fuel shipments does indeed decrease radiation exposure levels under normal and accident transportation conditions and at what incremental cost forms the basis of this study funded by the Federal Railroad Administration. The study is divided into five areas: (1) developing analytical models for assessing the risks associated with both the normal and accident transport modes; (2) selecting representative origin to destination routing pairs using the normal transportation and accident risk models; (3) analyzing rail shipment costs for nuclear spent fuel; and (4) performing sensitivity analyses to identify parameters that critically affect the total exposure level. The major findings resulting from this study. are: (1) the risk over the seven example routes is relatively small for the normal transport mode; (2) the risk associated with an accident is at least an order of magnitude larger than the normal transport dose in all cases and as such is the overriding contribution to the total expected transport dose; and (3) no beneficial cost versus dose reduction relationship was found for any of the routes studied.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 23 Jan 2018 15:19:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1493765</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Lessons Learned from the Development of Cementitious Grouts for Deep Borehole Disposal Applications</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1477477</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The performance of grouts made using oilwell cement is markedly different above 90°C than at lower temperatures, and the rapidity with which grouts thicken can cause failures in well cementing. One grouting application in which such temperatures are encountered is deep borehole disposal (DBD). DBD is a concept for disposing of high-level radioactive wastes where the temperature and pressure will be 90–140°C and 30–50 MPa, respectively. In developing DBD grouts, a number of issues have been identified that will be of interest to well-cementing organizations. (1) The type of retarder used to delay grout thickening above 90°C is of extreme importance, and should be selected based on local temperature, pressure, and geochemical environment. Addition level might vary considerably depending on the retarder used. (2) Temperature and pressure will shorten the time for grouts to thicken, particularly the former. Water content will also affect grout properties such as consistency, viscosity, and flow. (3) The retarder may not influence hardened grout composition, which suggests that only the time at which the cement hydration reactions occur is influenced.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 27 Jul 2017 10:05:29 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1477477</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Impact of a 70 °C temperature on an ordinary Portland cement paste/claystone interface: An in situ experiment</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1403711</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Radioactive wastes in future underground disposal sites will induce a temperature increase at the interface between the cementitious materials and the host rock. To understand the evolution of Portland cement in this environment, an in situ specific device was developed in the Underground Research Laboratory in Tournemire (France). Ordinary portland cement (OPC) cement paste was put into contact with clayey rock under water-saturated conditions at 70 °C. The initial temperature increase led to ettringite dissolution and siliceous katoite precipitation, without monosulfoaluminate formation. After 1 year of interaction, partial decalcification and diffuse carbonation (calcite precipitation) was observed over 800 µm in the cement paste. At the interface, a layer constituted of phillipsite (zeolite), tobermorite [well-crystallised calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H)] and calcium alumino-silicate hydrate (C-(A)-S-H) had formed. Globally, porosity decreased at both sides of the interface. Geochemical modelling supports the experimental results, especially the coexistence of tobermorite and phillipsite at 70 °C, minerals never observed before in concrete/clay interface experiments.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 30 Apr 2016 15:03:24 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1403711</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Influence of sodium borate on the early age hydration of calcium sulfoaluminate cement</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1362002</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cements are potential candidates for the conditioning of radioactive wastes with high sodium borate concentrations. This work thus investigates early age hydration of two CSA cements with different gypsum contents (0 to 20%) as a function of the mixing solution composition (borate and NaOH concentrations). Gypsum plays a key role in controlling the reactivity of cement. When the mixing solution is pure water, increasing the gypsum concentration accelerates cement hydration. However, the reverse is observed when the mixing solution contains sodium borate. Until gypsum exhaustion, the pore solution pH remains constant at ~ 10.8, and a poorly crystallized borate compound (ulexite) precipitates. A correlation is established between this transient precipitation and the hydration delay. Decreasing the gypsum content in the binder, or increasing the sodium content in the mixing solution, are two ways of reducing the stability of ulexite, thus decreasing the hydration delay.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 25 Aug 2015 21:44:24 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1362002</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Understanding the scabbling of concrete using microwave energy</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1362086</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Concrete blocks supplied by the UK Sellafield nuclear site were treated with microwave energy using a 15 kW system operating at 2.45 GHz. The effect of aggregate type (Whinstone, Gravel and Limestone); standoff distance; and effect of surface coating were studied to determine their influence on the systems performance in terms of mass and area removal rates and evaluate the controllability of the process. All blocks were scabbled successfully, with mass and area removal rates averaging 11.3 g s-¹ and 3 cm s-¹ respectively on treating large areas to a depth of 25 mm. The use of a Kevlar barrier between the block and applicator was found to significantly reduce the generation of dust as only 1.6% of the scabbled mass was in the < 106 µm — that generally considered to be airborne. Importantly Brazilian disc testing of the scabbled block showed that the process did not adversely affect structural properties of the test blocks after treatment.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 25 Aug 2015 21:43:53 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1362086</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Investigation of the swelling behavior of cationic exchange resins saturated with Na+ ions in a C₃S paste</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1362011</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Ion exchange resins (IERs) are widely used by the nuclear industry to decontaminate radioactive effluents. Spent products are usually encapsulated in cementitious materials. However, the solidified waste form can exhibit strong expansion, possibly leading to cracking, if the appropriate binder is not used. In this work, the interactions between cationic resins in the Na+ form and tricalcium silicate are investigated during the early stages of hydration in order to gain a better understanding of the expansion process. It is shown that the IERs exhibit a transient swelling of small magnitude due to the decrease in the osmotic pressure of the external solution. This expansion, which occurs just after setting, is sufficient to damage the material which is poorly consolidated for several reasons: low degree of hydration, precipitation of poorly cohesive sodium-bearing C–S–H, and very heterogeneous microstructure with zones of high porosity.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 25 Aug 2015 21:43:52 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1362011</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>SOLIDIFICATION OF Na₂CO₃ SOLUTION BY BLAST FURNACE SLAG AND OPC</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1351814</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Low level radioactive waste containing sodium nitrate is generated in reprocessing steps of nuclear fuel cycle. The technology which converts sodium nitrate into sodium carbonate is developed for environmental loading reduction. Therefore solidification of low level radioactive waste containing Na₂CO₃ solution is requested. In this research, the authors discussed the solidification of Na₂CO₃ solution by BFS-OPC system and the reaction mechanism of blast furnace slag (BFS)-ordinary Portland cement (OPC)-Na₂CO₃ system at 50℃. When the replacement ratio of OPC increased, the setting time of BFS-OPC-Na₂CO₃ system became shorter. However the compressive strength of hardened paste at 7days was decreased by using of OPC. From these results, it is concluded that the adequate replacement ratio of OPC for BFS is 10～15％. The ignition loss of hardened BFS-OPC-Na₂CO₃ system did not depend on the replacement ratio of OPC. And calcium-silicate hydration product (C-S-H(Ⅰ)), calcite (CaCO₃) and mono carbonate (AFm(CO₃)) were observed in this system. Gaylussite was not observed at 50℃. However, the porosity of hardened BFS-OPC-Na₂CO₃ paste was increased when the replacement of OPC increased. As the replacement ratio of OPC increased, the amount of mono carbonate was increased. So the authors can consider the compressive strength of hardened paste depends on the generation of Mono carbonate.本研究では高炉スラグ-OPC-Na₂CO₃系の反応機構と固化について検討を加え、アルカリ刺激剤としてNa₂CO₃でも固化できることを明らかとした。凝結時間を早めるためには高炉スラグの一部を普通ポルトランドセメント（以下OPCとする）に置換することで改善することが分かった。凝結時間を早めるためにはOPC置換率は10％以上が望ましい。OPC置換率が増加するに従い強度が低下することが分かった。1週間で10MPaの強度を必要とする場合OPCの置換率は15％が限界であった。両方の条件を満たすにはOPC置換率は10～15％が望ましい。またOPCを置換するにつれモノカーボネートの生成量が増加していることが分かった。強度の低下はモノカーボネートの生成が増加したことによると推定された。]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 26 May 2015 16:12:43 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1351814</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>SOLIDIFICATION OF Na₂CO₃ SOLUTION BY BLAST FURNACE SLAG AND FLY ASH</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1351636</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The low level radioactive waste is generated in reprocessing steps of nuclear fuel cycle. The technology which converts the sodium nitrate in the waste into sodium carbonate is developed for environmental loading reduction. It is requested to solidify low level radioactive waste solution containing Na₂CO₃. In this research, the authors discussed the reaction mechanism of blast furnace slag and fly ash Na₂CO₃ system, and solidification of Na₂CO₃. In the case of using Na₂CO₃ as alkali activating agent the reaction of blast-furnace-slag was proceeded and solidified substance was obtained. On the other hand the reaction of fly ash was not proceeded. And reaction mechanism of blast furnace slag-Na₂CO₃ system was also investigated. Reaction ratio of blast furnace slag was about 50％ in a week. Hydrated products in this system was C-S-H, Calcite, gaylussite and AFm（CO₃). Reaction rate of blast-furnace-slag was related to the existence of gaylussite. The maximum replacement ratio of fly ash for blast furnace slag is 15％ for obtaining the solidified substance in a week. The reaction of blast furnace slag was retarded by replacement of fly ash. The retardation mechanism of blast-furnace-slag reaction is due to the existence of gaylussite and reduction of CaO/SiO₂ in C-S-H.本研究では高炉スラグ-Na₂CO₃系の反応機構と固化について検討を加え、アルカリ刺激剤としてNa₂CO₃でも固化できることを明らかとした。アルカリ刺激剤にNa₂CO₃を用いると、発熱反応が緩やかになる期間が存在して、その後に大きな発熱反応が確認された。これはゲイリュサイトの生成と関連するものと推定された。フライアッシュで高炉スラグを置換する場合、1週間で固化するためには、フライアッシュの置換率は15％が限界であった。高炉スラグをフライアッシュで置換すると反応は遅延した。遅延の原因はゲイリュサイトの生成と、生成したC-S-HのCa/Siが下がることに原因があると推定された。]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 30 Apr 2015 15:40:40 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1351636</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Used Fuel Disposition Campaign. Transportation Shock and Vibration Literature Review</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1258379</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The purpose of this report is to document the results of a literature review conducted of studies related to the vibration and shock associated with the normal conditions of transport for rail shipments of used nuclear fuel from commercial light-water reactors. The objective of this report is to determine if adequate data exist to realistically evaluate the impacts of the shock and vibration associated with the normal conditions of transport on commercial light-water reactor used nuclear fuel shipped in current-generation high-capacity rail transportation casks. The literature review concentrated on papers and reports related to the transport of used nuclear fuel, radioactive waste, or other radioactive material, in part because of the weight associated with commercial light-water reactor used nuclear fuel rail transportation casks, which is about 300,000 lb., and because the weight of the transportation cask on a railcar directly affects the magnitude of vibrations and shock imparted to the used nuclear fuel contained in the transportation cask.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 03 Sep 2013 12:24:18 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1258379</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Assessing Aggregates for Radiation-Shielding Concrete</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1251421</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Petrographic examination provides an effective means of detecting potentially deleterious and undesirable materials in aggregates for concrete. In this article, the authors discuss aggregates used in radiation-shielding concrete (RSC). They also cite the standards and describe the procedures for evaluating these aggregates. The article discusses how RSC is used in nuclear power plants, health care facilities, and storage/transport casks for radioactive wastes. High-density aggregates are used in RSC mixtures to attenuate gamma rays and light atomic weight aggregates are used to absorb neutrons, so their properties and proportions will affect a mixture’s radiation-shielding characteristics.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 03 Jun 2013 09:21:20 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1251421</guid>
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