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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <atom:link href="https://trid.trb.org/Record/RSS?s=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" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml" />
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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    <item>
      <title>Unsaturated mechanical behaviour of a granular material</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1629239</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper presents the influence of the unsaturated state and especially the suction on the permanent and resilient behaviour of a granular material for roads. In this context, the soil water retention curves (SWRCs) of a compacted clayey sand with two different fine contents are initially obtained to deduce the suction corresponding to a given water content. A parameter s* is defined as the suction value corresponding to the intersection point of wetting and drying paths in the SWRC. The permanent deformation and resilient deformation under repeated loading with different water contents and different fine contents are then studied by repeated load triaxial tests. Based on the experimental results, it can be stated that the hydraulic conditions affect strongly both permanent and resilient deformations of the granular materials. Finally, a series of equations can be proposed to describe the correlations between suction ratio s/s* and permanent and resilient deformations of the granular material at different water contents and different fine contents. Generally, the prediction models can effectively capture the permanent and resilient behaviours based on the suction ratio s/s*. The analytical solutions are unique to estimate permanent and resilient behaviour in the same framework based on the suction value. The authors recommend the models as improved approaches to reduce the number of tests required to estimate the soil deformation in pavement structures.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 13 Jun 2019 17:28:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1629239</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Laboratory Comparison of Permanent Deformation and Fatigue Behavior of Neat, Polymer, and Rubber-Asphalt Binders</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1586810</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Fatigue cracking and rutting are among the major types of distresses to be considered in flexible pavement design. In this context, the choice of the asphalt binder plays a major role in both the fatigue behavior and permanent deformation resistance of the asphalt mixture. This study was conducted to assess the permanent deformation and fatigue behavior of a field-blended rubber-asphalt (CRMA) and compare the results with typical binders used in Brazil. The neat binder used for modification was also employed as a control and as a base for polymer modification (SBSA). The binders were evaluated using the multiple stress creep and recovery (MSCR) for permanent deformation behavior, and the time sweep (TST) and linear amplitude sweep (LAS) tests for fatigue behavior. Modification of the neat binder resulted in an increase in percentage recovery in the MSCR, whereas the percentage recovery for CRMA was the highest among the three binders at any given temperature. The non-recoverable creep compliance for the CRMA was lower than that exhibited by the neat and SBSA binders for both stress levels for the range of temperatures tested. Binder modification resulted in an improved fatigue behavior compared with the neat binder according to the TST and LAS, whereas rubber modification resulted in the best fatigue behavior. Fatigue life prediction by TST was consistently higher than fatigue life prediction in the LAS test, probably because different criteria were used for determining failure in each test (ranking of the binders remained constant regardless of the criteria used).]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 01 Apr 2019 11:15:57 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1586810</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Synergistic influence of aging and moisture on performance of warm mix asphalt</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1521673</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In this study, the influence of aging and moisture on the two different mechanical behaviors of warm mix asphalt was studied. The cracking and permanent deformation resistance were assessed in terms of tensile strength and flow number computed using a three stage model respectively. The influence of temperature on the tensile strength and both stress and temperature levels on the permanent deformation response of aged and moisture conditioned warm mix asphalt were investigated. Results show that moisture and increase in temperature had a negative impact on the tensile strength of warm mix asphalt while aging had a positive impact. However, the variation in tensile strength of mixtures was strongly related to variation in percent air voids. Aging and interestingly moisture conditioning were found to increase the resistance to permanent deformation of warm mix asphalt. Permanent deformation behavior of moisture conditioned samples was further studied to assess the impact of saturation. Results showed that the presence of moisture in samples increases the permanent deformation resistance. From the statistical analysis it was found that both the individual and interaction of aging and moisture had a significant effect on the tensile strength and flow numbers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 11 Jul 2018 17:12:44 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1521673</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Experimental evaluation of geocell-reinforced bases under repeated loading</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1502615</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Geocells, one type of geosynthetics manufactured in a form of three-dimensional interconnected cells, have been reported to effectively provide lateral confinement to infill material to increase the modulus and bearing capacity of base courses. Most studies so far have been focused on the behavior of geocell-reinforced bases under static loading. Geocells used for pavement applications are subjected to repeated loading. Limited studies have been conducted to investigate the performance of geocell-reinforced bases under repeated loading. In this study, single and multiple geocell-reinforced granular bases with three types of infill materials (Kansas River sand, quarry waste, and AB-3 aggregate) were tested and compared with the unreinforced bases under repeated loading. This study experimentally investigated the effect of the geocell reinforcement on the permanent deformation and percentage elastic deformation of the granular bases. The test results showed that the geocell reinforcement reduced the permanent deformation and increased the percentage elastic deformation of the granular bases. Multiple geocell-reinforced sections demonstrated even better performance as compared with single geocell-reinforced sections.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 08 Mar 2018 10:46:45 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1502615</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Laboratory and field evaluation of cold recycling mixture with foamed asphalt</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1491214</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Cold recycling with foamed asphalt stabilisation has been gaining acceptance and growing steadily. This study evaluates the performance of cold recycled mixes stabilised with foamed asphalt, with respect to the effects of confining stresses, and material moisture content. An experimental test section with a foamed stabilised recycled material used as the base course was monitored through quality control and quality assurance and falling weight deflectometer (FWD) tests. In laboratory, indirect tensile strength, triaxial resilient modulus, and permanent deformation tests were performed. Based on the results obtained, one can conclude that the curing is a critical consideration in terms of timing and its influence on pavement performance. Triaxial tests showed the stress dependency of this bitumen-stabilised material, while permanent deformation results indicated some potential for damage in early stages after construction. On the field evaluation, FWD data indicated the decrease in deflection with time, as a result of the increase in the layers stiffness.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 02 Jan 2018 10:38:57 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1491214</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Permanent deformation behaviour of a granular material used in low-traffic pavements</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1491208</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Granular materials are usually used in low-traffic pavement structure as base layer or sub-base layer. The influence of fine content on permanent axial deformation behaviour is significant as well as the water content. This study aims to investigate the permanent axial deformation behaviour of the granular material under cyclic loading at various water contents and various fine contents. A triaxial apparatus is used to obtain permanent axial deformation on the samples prepared with the same dry density at different water contents between 7% and 11% and at different fine contents of 4%, 7.5% and 15.3%. The results show the significant influence of water content and fine content on permanent axial deformation behaviour. The permanent axial deformation increases with the increase of water content while the influence of fine content depends on the water sensitivity of fine particles and their initial water contents. The modified empirical–analytical models are proposed for describing the evolution of permanent axial deformation based on the results in the single-stage test and the multi-stage tests. It takes into account the number of cycles, the stress level, the water content and the fine content of the granular material. Two approaches are used: one based on the water contents and fine contents and the other based on suction values. The approach based on suction values needs less number of parameters to describe permanent axial deformation compared with the approach based on the water contents and fine contents while the two approaches present more or less the same accuracy. The simulation results show a very good capacity of the proposed approaches. These findings reduce the number of tests required to predict permanent axial deformation.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 02 Jan 2018 10:38:56 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1491208</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Evaluation of microstructure and damage evolution for asphalt pavements in an advanced repeated load permanent deformation test using X-ray computed tomography</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1474392</link>
      <description><![CDATA[It is significant to capture the microstructure characteristics and evolution of asphalt mixtures since it is well related to the macroscopic pavement performance. The X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) technique is a suitable candidate to gather and analyse the image information of the internal structure for materials. An advanced repeated load permanent deformation (ARLPD) test that could largely simulate the confining pressure and temperature gradient of actual pavements was conducted on several typical newly constructed and overlay pavement structures. CT and digital image processing techniques were used to characterise the evolution behaviour of microstructure and damage in asphalt layers before and after testing at high temperatures. Combining the macroscopic pavement performance with microstructure evolution, the failure mechanism for different pavements and layers was finally discussed. It is found from the ARLPD test that newly constructed hot mix asphalt pavements show much better rutting resistance than the overlay pavements. The middle asphalt layer and the overlay layer, respectively, contribute approximate half of the total rut depth for newly constructed and overlay pavements. After testing, the change of air void content varies in different layers and pavements, indicating different rutting mechanisms (densification or shear flow). In the middle asphalt layer of overlay pavements, some cracks are formed with a great increase in air void aspect ratio and a significant decrease in air void number. Using the crack density as an indicator, the correlation of permanent deformation and cracks at high temperatures is preliminarily found.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 29 Aug 2017 10:07:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1474392</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Importance of binder modification type and aggregate structure on rutting resistance of asphalt mixtures using image-based multi-scale modelling</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1464382</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Permanent deformation is known as one of the most critical distresses observed in asphalt pavements, and is known to depend on asphalt binder, aggregates and voids, which are the components of asphalt mixture. This study is an effort to investigate the effect of asphalt binder modification type and aggregate structure on rutting resistance through experimentation and finite-element simulation. Asphalt binders with different levels of non-recoverable compliance (Jnr) and elastic recovery (%R) based on the Multiple Stress Creep Recovery test were selected. Asphalt mixtures with different aggregate gradations were prepared for testing and image processing for numerical simulation. A flow number test was conducted on the mixture samples to obtain the asphalt mixture rutting performance. A two-dimensional (2D) image analysis was also conducted on the mixture samples to characterise their internal aggregate structures. In addition, a recently developed image-based multi-scale finite-element model was used to predict the permanent deformation of the asphalt mixtures. In this approach, four interconnected scales were modelled, namely asphalt binder, mastic, mortar and mixture scales through homogenisation and upscaling techniques to transfer the material properties from lower scale to higher scale. A novel approach for taking into account contact mechanics between aggregates as function of proximity is used at all scales. The simulation results show that by changing the aggregate gradation (packing), and the viscous component of asphalt binder (Jnr), the rutting resistance of asphalt mixtures can be significantly improved. However in comparison the elastic component of asphalt binder (% recovery) is not found to be a significant factor especially in a well-packed aggregate structure. The results raise questions about the focus by many agencies on the requirements of elastic recovery of binders as a tool to select modified binders for better high-temperature performance.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 25 May 2017 13:56:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1464382</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Deformation and Dynamic Load Amplification Trends at Railroad Bridge Approaches: Effects Caused by High-Speed Passenger Trains</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1439458</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Railroad track transitions such as bridge approaches may experience differential movements due to variations in track stiffness; impact loads due to train speed and excessive vibration; ballast settlement from fouling, degradation, or both; tie–ballast contact condition and gap; and settlement of fill, subgrade, and foundation layers. A research study completed recently at the University of Illinois focused on identifying the major causes of this differential movement and implementing suitable rehabilitation measures to mitigate recurrent problems with settlement and geometry. Transient and permanent deformation trends were observed in track substructure layers at two instrumented bridge approaches along the Amtrak Northeast Corridor. Multidepth deflectometer systems installed through crossties successfully recorded both permanent (plastic) and transient deformations of individual track substructure layers. Strain gauges mounted on the rail effectively measured vertical wheel loads applied during train passage and monitored the support conditions under the instrumented crossties. Track settlement (or permanent deformation) data revealed that the ballast layer was the primary source of differential movement contributing to recurrent settlement and geometry problems. Transient layer deformations recorded under train passage were higher in the ballast than in any other substructure layer. Transient displacement and wheel load data were consistently higher at near-bridge locations than at open-track locations. Rail-mounted strain gauges indicated that load amplification levels were significantly higher at near-bridge locations than at open-track locations.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 29 Dec 2016 15:53:12 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1439458</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Nonlinear viscoelastic model for asphalt mixture subjected to repeated loading</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1425391</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The modified Burgers model was selected to develop the nonlinear viscoelastic (NLVE) model of asphalt mixture subjected to repeated load, and the permanent strain was expressed as the summation of residual viscoelastic (RVE) and nonlinear viscous (NLV) strains. It is found that RVE and NLV strains increase with the increasing loading cycles, but RVE strain decreases with the increasing rest period while NLV is not related to the rest period. The proportion of NLV strain to total strain increases with the rest period and loading cycles and the NLV strain is the predominant part if the rest period is long enough. Thus, the NLVE model could be predigested. The repeated load permanent deformation tests of three asphalt mixtures were conducted at different temperatures and stresses for model validation and parameter analysis. It is found that the permanent strain increases with test temperature and stress and the proposed NLVE model can well describe the mechanical behaviour of the asphalt mixture subjected to repeated load. Moreover, fitting results show that the modified Burgers model parameters ,  and  decrease with test temperature but increase with stress while parameter  shows no significant change rule.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 21 Oct 2016 16:32:16 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1425391</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Impact of Dual Gauge Railway Tracks on the Traffic Load-Induced Permanent Deformation of Low Embankments</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1417397</link>
      <description><![CDATA[There is a growing interest of many African countries to revamp their neglected and unsustainable railways to attract a transportation modal shift from the roads. In order to promote regional trade and transportation integration with border concessions, investors are faced with problems of railway track gauge conversions to match the needs of the rolling stock technology of the 21st century at the same time maintain business operations with the old rolling stock on the same track.The objective of the work documented in this paper was to numerically evaluate the impact of track gauge conversions on traffic load induced permanent deformation (PD) of low embankment on soft sub-grade. A method to predict the traffic load induced settlement of low embankment on soft sub-grade is proposed. Using the user-defined material subroutines (UMAT) in ABAQUS, a 2-D finite element (FE) model was formulated. These models are converted into a numerical formulation for implementation in FE analysis and the traffic load induced dynamic stress in the sub grade are calculated by using the multi-layer elastic theory. Then the plastic vertical strain in the sub-grade is calculated by an empirical equation, whose constants are related to the physical and mechanical properties of the sub-grade soil. The method was applied to analyze a 700m long section of a low embankment on the soft black cotton soil of Nakuru plains in Kenya using single and dual track gauge respectively. The corresponding results showed that the application of traffic loads on alternate rail tracks due to gauge conversions have a significant effect on the permanent deformation of the sub grade soil. The depth significantly influenced by traffic loading was found to be close to 6 m below the base of the embankment. The analysis also shows that increasing the thickness and stiffness of the sub grade is a very effective way of reducing the traffic load induced permanent deformation of soft sub grade soil. The proposed method can be used for settlement analysis on low embankments as well as a useful tool for making decisions on railway track gauge conversions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 29 Aug 2016 11:12:18 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1417397</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Permanent deformation behaviour of reinforced flexible pavements built on soft soil subgrade</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1404007</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of using various geogrid products to improve permanent deformation resistance in soft subgrade soils commonly encountered during roadway construction in Pennsylvania. Permanent deformation behaviours of the soft soils both with and without the inclusion of geogrids were investigated. Cyclic moving wheel loads were applied through a reduced-scale accelerated pavement testing (APT) device, a one-third-scale model mobile load simulator (MMLS3). Tests were conducted on two soil types, each modified with three different biaxial geogrids placed at the base–subgrade interface. The total permanent deformation/surface rutting of the pavement and the permanent deformation of the subgrade were measured at selected intervals of the wheel loading applications. The pavement sections were trenched upon completion of the accelerated testing to measure the deformed profiles of the cross sections from which the permanent deformations in the asphalt layer and the base layer were determined. Sections modified with geogrids were found to have similar performance with the control section in terms of the total permanent deformation. While the geogrids did not show significant effects on the asphalt layer permanent deformation, sections with geogrids consistently showed a significantly higher base layer permanent deformation as compared to the control sections. Measurements of the subgrade permanent deformation showed that two of the geogrids consistently reduced the permanent deformation of subgrade built with the two types of soft soil. The relative layer contribution to the total permanent deformation suggested a base layer failure in both sets of the accelerated tests, most likely due to the inadequate compaction of the base layer during construction. Sections modified with geogrids exhibited a significantly higher base layer contribution, along with a significantly lower subgrade contribution, to the total permanent deformation, whereas the control section showed the opposite of the layer contributions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 20 May 2016 15:54:13 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1404007</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Analysis of the permanent deformation of automobile hoods</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1403341</link>
      <description><![CDATA[One factor that determines the quality of an automobile’s appearance is its appearance integrity, which means that the degree to which an automobile’s physical appearance coincides with its mechanical quality. The painting process of an automobile can cause the permanent deformation of its hood, which lowers its appearace integrity. The painting process is comprised of the dipping process and the oven process. In the dipping process, pressure caused by the flow of fluid can cause the deformation of the automobile hood; in the oven process, the thermal deformation of sealers can cause the deformation of the hood. In an effort to increase automobiles᾿appearance integrity, this study identifies the major causes of deformation and predicts the types of deformation occurring in each process. The numerical model of a hood is established using the stiffness scanning method and analysis, and deformation in the dipping process is confirmed using Finite Elements Method (FEM). Sealers are hypothesized as the main reason for deformation in the oven process, so a study of the sealers is conducted to predict the deformation occurring after the oven process. Further, through a thermal property experiment and viscosity test, the authors are able to deduce the properties of sealers that cause deformation. This study also examines the effects of hood deformation in the oven process using numerical analysis and compares the degree of deformation caused by pressure and heat. The results show that the absolute value of deformation in the dipping process is greater than that in the oven process. Moreover, it is shown that deformation can occur bi-directionally in the oven process, and the quantity of mastic sealer does affect the degree of deformation.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 28 Apr 2016 14:43:28 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1403341</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Development of a rutting prediction model for asphalt pavements with the use of an accelerated loading facility</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1394707</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Integrating the design of a pavement structure and its materials is fundamental to ensure that asphalt pavements possess adequate rutting resistance. In this study, a rutting prediction model was established to link mixture permanent deformation with pavement rutting in the process of integrating design. Several factors, such as the application environment (temperature and vehicle speed), service life (traffic volume), pavement structure, and mixture performance, were characterised. An exponential model was used, and a basic rutting prediction model was developed; the latter model involves mixture dynamic stability, shear stress of the pavement structure, axle loading repetitions, pavement temperature, vehicle speed, and pavement depth. Three different pavement structures were analysed through accelerated pavement rutting tests with an accelerated loading facility and through shear stress calculation. The corresponding asphalt mixtures were tested through rutting and creep tests on the asphalt mixture performance tester to determine the parameters of a simplified rutting prediction model with a reference speed of 20 km/h. A model of time hardening creep and loading time function was used to determine the relationship between pavement rutting and vehicle speed. The final rutting prediction model was established through adjustment of vehicle speed in the simplified rutting prediction model. An application method for the prediction model was also proposed through reference to rutting nonlinear superposition methods in the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide. Finally, the developed model was validated with the use of actual rutting data. However, more field rutting data are needed for further model validation and improvement.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 29 Jan 2016 09:33:47 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1394707</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Modifying laboratory mixture design to improve field compaction</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1377701</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Field data collected in Indiana suggest that if asphalt mixtures were designed to be more compactable in the field, they could be compacted to a field density equivalent to the laboratory mixture design density, potentially increasing pavement durability. The objective of this research was to modify the mixture design in order to increase in-place mixture density without sacrificing permanent deformation characteristics. Three 100-gyration mixtures were used, each meeting applicable specifications and designed according to American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) M323. For each mixture, additional designs were completed using 30, 50, and 70 gyrations. Optimum binder content for these mixtures was chosen at 5% air voids, rather than 4%, and the effective binder content was held constant. Results indicate that the mixture produced using 30, 50, and 70 gyrations had equal or better permanent deformation characteristics than the original 100-gyration mixtures. A trial field project confirmed that mixtures designed at 5% air voids could be compacted to this level, showing that the approach is feasible from a construction viewpoint.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 15 Jan 2016 15:05:20 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1377701</guid>
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