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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <title>How do motorists’ pre-crash behaviors contribute to the injury severity of police officers? Using interpretable machine learning to untangle the behavioral pathways in crashes involving police vehicles</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2569856</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Police officers are integral to enforcing traffic laws and providing assistance to motorists. While performing their duties on the road or roadside, they encounter significant hazards, many of which arise from the negligent or inappropriate behaviors of drivers. Despite the prevalence of these risks, there is a paucity of research specifically examining the outcomes of traffic crashes involving police officers or police vehicles, particularly in relation to the injury severity sustained by police officers in such incidents. The objective of this study is to explore the roles of motorist behaviors in police-involved crashes. Specifically, using police-involved crashes data from 2017 to 2021 in Alabama, this study employs a path analysis framework integrated with interpretable machine learning to examine the behavioral pathways from contributing factors to motorists’ pre-crash behaviors, ultimately leading to the injury severity of police officers. The path analysis allows the identification of various factors that directly contribute to injury severity and those that indirectly contribute to injury severity through their relationships with motorists’ pre-crash behaviors. The results indicate that several factors are directly associated with policy injury severities, including motorists’ pre-crash behaviors (such as failure to yield, driving under the influence (DUI), and traffic signal violations) that are significantly correlated with increased injury severity for police officers involved in crashes. Further, these pre-crash behaviors are associated with contributing factors including vehicle speeds, lighting conditions, seatbelt usage, and weather conditions. Thus, these contributing factors serve as significant predictors of motorists’ pre-crash behaviors, indirectly impacting police injury severity through their influence on unsafe driving practices. This study provides valuable insights into the behavioral pathway leading to police injury severities. By understanding the direct and indirect contributors to police injury severity, policymakers can develop targeted interventions to address these key risk factors and improve overall road safety for police officers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 20 Aug 2025 11:57:17 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2569856</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Speed kills? Quantifying the association between police traffic stops, types of stops, and motor vehicle collisions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2338561</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) are a leading cause of traumatic death and injury. Police traffic stops (PTS) are a common approach to enforcing motor vehicle laws intended to prevent MVCs. However, it is unclear which types of PTS are most effective. This study examined the relationship of PTS subtypes among municipal police patrols on non-interstate roads and MVCs and MVC-related deaths. PTS subtype data were characterized from six North Carolina cities: Charlotte, Durham, Fayetteville, Greensboro, Raleigh, and Winston-Salem. The primary outcomes of this study were yearly non-interstate MVC and MVC-related death rates per 100 population. The data were analyzed as balanced time-series cross-sectional data. The statistical analysis accounted for time-dependent and city-dependent confounding. The authors used a two-way fixed effects model to analyze the relationship between PTS and MVC or MVC-related deaths. The authors also utilized the difference in difference (DID) analysis to analyze if the reduction of PTS following a 2012 policing administrative change in Fayetteville had an association with MVC or MVC-related deaths. The authors found no significant overall association between non-interstate PTS and MVCs (Coeff: -0.00006; p = 0.43) or MVC-related deaths (Coeff: -0.00011; p = 0.15). Panel regression suggested no significant relationship between MVCs and MVC-related deaths and PTS related to driving while impaired (p = 0.36), safe movement violation (p = 0.43), or seatbelt violations (p = 0.17). However, speed limit violations (Coeff: -0.00025; p = 0.032) and stop-light/sign violations (Coeff: -0.00147; p = 0.017) related to PTS significantly reduced MVC-related deaths. The DID regression showed no significant impact on MVCs (p = 0.924) or MVC-related deaths (0.706) before and after the police reform period. The evidence regarding the absence of an overall association and any association with most PTS subtypes suggest that PTS are not effective for MVC death prevention. Policymakers may proceed with exploring modifications to policing efforts without detriments to public safety as defined by MVC and MVC-related deaths.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 26 Feb 2024 08:51:58 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2338561</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Traffic Police 3D Gesture Recognition Based on Spatial–Temporal Fully Adaptive Graph Convolutional Network</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2237854</link>
      <description><![CDATA[It is critical for autonomous vehicles to recognize traffic police gestures timely and accurately. During the movement of the vehicle, the collected traffic police scales change all the time, in addition, the frequency and amplitude of actions of different traffic police are different. First, the authors use gesture normalization to fix the traffic police actions at a unified scale and remove the influence of scale changes on traffic police gesture recognition. Meanwhile, a fully adaptive spatial-temporal graph convolution network (FA-STGCN) is proposed to recognize the actions with different amplitude and frequencies. The adaptive spatial graph network can dig the latent joints connection relation of the traffic police under different gestures, which weakens the amplitude impact on the action recognition. The adaptive temporal graph network is composed of the global temporal module and the local temporal module. The global temporal module can obtain the coarse-grained features of the traffic police gestures’ speed and then naturally use the coarse-grained features to guide the local temporal module to adaptively learn the fine-grained temporal features of the traffic police action. The adaptive spatial graph network and the temporal graph network are alternately stacked to finally output accurate traffic police gestures. They thoroughly evaluated their method through intensive experiments, the result shows that their method achieved the best results on public datasets. What’s more, they proofed the effectiveness of each module and verified their methods for moving vehicles for the first time, the performance present meets the vehicle’s practical requirements.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 28 Dec 2023 13:28:06 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2237854</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Impact of Police Enforcement on Critical Gap at Roundabouts</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1867813</link>
      <description><![CDATA[At modern roundabouts, entering vehicles must yield right of way to vehicles in the circulating lane and can only proceed if there is a proper gap. The critical gap is the minimum acceptable gap that a driver will use to enter the roundabout. It is thus assumed that drivers will reject gaps of a value less than it and will accept gaps of a value more than it. In some countries, due to heavy congestion, police enforcement officers monitor and regulate the movement of vehicles at critical roundabouts during the peak hours of the day as needed. In some cases, police enforcement officers will be present at the roundabout during peak hours without interfering with the traffic flow to reduce the incidence of traffic violations. The purpose of this study was to investigate if there is a change in driver behavior in the form of a change in the critical gap value. A major roundabout was used to investigate the effect of police enforcement presence. The results of the study indicated that the critical gap during the police enforcement presence was 2.13 s whereas the critical gap of the roundabout during normal conditions was 2.42 s. The reduction in the critical gap is an indication that roundabouts can perform better and handle more traffic volume when police officers are present.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 31 Aug 2021 16:50:54 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1867813</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Traffic stops do not prevent traffic deaths</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1870821</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article reports on a study undertaken to examine the relationship between the police traffic stops (PTSs) and motor vehicle crash (MVC) fatalities at the state level for the years 2004-2016.  The authors examined PTS data from 33 state patrols, reviewed fatalities data from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, and included vehicle miles traveled data were from the Federal Highway Administration Office of Highway Policy Information.  There was a total of 161,153,248 PTS included in the study.  Both PTS and fatality rate varied by both state and year.  For example, Nebraska had the highest PTS rate (2004), while Arizona had the lowest PTS rate (2009). Motor vehicle crash deaths were highest in South Carolina in 2005 and lowest in Rhode Island in 2015.  The authors conclude with a brief discussion of their finding that state patrol traffic stops are not associated with reduced MVC deaths.  They also provide recommendations for other strategies to reduce MVC fatalities.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 26 Aug 2021 16:53:57 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1870821</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Sources and exposure risk of trace elements for traffic policemen in roadside locations</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1677540</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Samples of PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ at four types of roadside location (major road, secondary road, branch road, and expressway) in Tianjin were collected and analyzed in 2015. The average annual roadside PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ concentrations were higher than the national ambient air quality standard (NAAQS: GB3095-2012). The chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), arsenic (As), and cadmium (Cd) concentrations in both PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ over four seasons displayed significant differences (p < 0.05). An enrichment factor (EF) analysis revealed that Cd, copper (Cu), Zn, As, Ni, and Pb in PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀  mainly originated from anthropogenic sources. A factor analysis (FA) and correlation analysis (CA) revealed that vehicle emissions (exhaust and non-exhaust), soil dust, coal combustion, and industrial emissions were the main sources of roadside PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ in Tianjin. Both the total hazard quotients (total HQ) and the total carcinogenic risk (total CR) for selected elements in PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ were within acceptable limits. The HQ of Pb was higher than for other metals, and it should therefore be given special attention. The CR for traffic policemen was highest for Cr exposure (1.01 × 10−5 for PM₂.₅ and 1.52 × 10−5 for PM₁₀), followed by As and Ni. A sensitivity analysis showed that the total contributions of the metal concentrations, exposure time (ET), and exposure frequency (EF) accounted for over 50% of the risk for Cr, As, and Ni, suggesting that these metals had the greatest impact on the uncertainty of health risk assessments.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 28 Jan 2020 09:42:25 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1677540</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Engaging police to identify challenging school crossings and potential improvements</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1513995</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper discusses the value of police officers as vital sources of information regarding pedestrian safety in their communities by presenting results from a survey of traffic safety police officers. The survey requested information on school crossings that the officers considered most challenging for pedestrians. Officers specified the intersections or mid-block locations with school crossings, and answered questions about elements of the locations, such as what makes the locations challenging, and what might be done to improve conditions at these locations. A key finding from the survey is the police officers’ identification of challenging intersections or other crossing locations by criteria other than the occurrence of crashes, including reported pedestrian-vehicle near-miss incidents. A broad literature review of pedestrian safety studies provides context for the use of near-miss data in discussions of improvements to pedestrian crossings. Although not typically considered a primary resource for pedestrian safety information, police officers are most often very familiar with their communities, work in locations where pedestrian and motor vehicle traffic can be experienced and observed, and receive information from their staff and members of the public who use pedestrian crossings. The survey findings demonstrate that police officer insights and near-miss data may serve as important supplementary sources of information in the effort to identify locations in need of interventions before crash occurrence.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 22 Jun 2018 16:42:01 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1513995</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Arizona Gov. Ducey approves vehicle fee to stabilize funding for highway patrol</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1514753</link>
      <description><![CDATA[]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 04 Jun 2018 09:45:04 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1514753</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>National Highways &amp; Motorways Police - A Symbol of Corruption Free Culture in Pakistan</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1510277</link>
      <description><![CDATA[National Highways & Motorways Police has been declared as a role model for the Public Organisation being a corruption free department in Pakistan. It has been included as the 13th corruption free department of the world. National Highways & Motorways Police has set a new standard of professionalism for public sector organizations in Pakistan. In Pakistan around 1300 billion rupees have been hushed up as corruption. Pakistan's ranking is as 34th on the Corruption Perception Index CPI of the most corrupt countries in the world. According to Transparency International, the Land Revenue Department is the most corrupt department, followed by Police and Judiciary. Although Police is considered to be the most corrupt and non-public friendly institution in Pakistan, but National Highways & Motorways Police has been ranked high among all enforcement agencies being corruption free. NH&MP is a federal enforcement agency under the Ministry of Communication. It was established in 1997 to carry out road traffic enforcement and education on motorways. In 2000 its jurisdiction was increased to National Highways. Currently, it has jurisdictional control over 2700 kilometres on various highways and motorways in Pakistan. NH&MP is going to have jurisdiction over certain other National Highways in the near future. Thus, it is going to be one of the largest enforcement agencies. NH&MP has a central command system under the Inspector General of Police which is the head of the department, followed by the Deputy Inspector General of Police which heads up a zone and then Superintendent of Police and Deputy Superintendent of Police which are the heads of Sector and the Beat respectively. Beat is the basic unit of operation which is divided into four sub beats. NH&MP has two types of staff: one administrative which is supporting staff and operational staff which carries out operational duties on highways and motorways. NH&MP has strict merit based recruitment policies and a strong accountability process. Due to such mechanisms, the chances of involvement of any staff members in the corruption have been kept to a minimum. Moreover, NH&MP officers are trained on modern footings so that their professional capabilities can be enhanced to be matchless. The footprints of corruption free institutions like National Highways & Motorway Police in Pakistan can be guiding principles for other institutions to replicate the model to attain high levels of professionalism.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 01 May 2018 12:06:18 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1510277</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The relative efficiency of Iranian's rural traffic police: a three-stage DEA model</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1505380</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Road traffic Injuries (RTIs) as a health problem imposes governments to implement different interventions. Target achievement in this issue required effective and efficient measures. Efficiency evaluation of traffic police as one of the responsible administrators is necessary for resource management. Therefore, this study conducted to measure Iran's rural traffic police efficiency. This was an ecological study. To obtain pure efficiency score, three-stage data envelopement analysis (DEA) model was conducted with seven inputs and three output variables. At the first stage, crude efficiency score was measured with BCC-O model. Next, to extract the effects of socioeconomic, demographic, traffic count and road infrastructure as the environmental variables and statistical noise, the Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA) model was applied and the output values were modified according to similar environment and statistical noise conditions. Then, the pure efficiency score was measured using modified outputs and BCC-O model. In total, the efficiency score of 198 police stations from 24 provinces of 31 provinces were measured. The annual means (standard deviation) of damage, injury and fatal accidents were 247.7 (258.4), 184.9 (176.9), and 28.7 (19.5), respectively. Input averages were 5.9 (3.0) patrol teams, 0.5% (0.2) manpower proportions, 7.5 (2.9) patrol cars, 0.5 (1.3) motorcycles, 77,279.1 (46,794.7) penalties, 90.9 (2.8) cultural and educational activity score, 0.7 (2.4) speed cameras. The SFA model showed non-significant differences between police station performances and the most differences attributed to the environmental and random error. One-way main road, by road, traffic count and the number of household owning motorcycle had significant positive relations with inefficiency score. The length of freeway/highway and literacy rate variables had negative relations, significantly. Pure efficiency score was with mean of 0.95 and SD of 0.09. Iran's traffic police has potential opportunity to reduce RTIs. Adjusting police performance with environmental conditions is necessary. Capability of DEA method in setting quantitative targets for every station induces motivation for managers to reduce RTIs. Repetition of this study is recommended, annually.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 13 Apr 2018 17:13:17 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1505380</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Determinants of Respiratory and Cardiovascular Health Effects in Traffic Policemen: A Perception-Based Comparative Analysis</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1467689</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study investigates the determining factors behind the adverse health effects of traffic policemen in the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi. A comparative analysis between 532 traffic policemen (subject population) and 150 office workers (control group) was undertaken to study the prevalence of disease. A primary survey was conducted over a period of 6 months between July 2015 and February 2016 using a questionnaire as a primary tool. A significantly higher (p=0.005) prevalence rate of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases was observed among traffic policemen than among the office workers (control group). Symptoms such as thick sputum, pain in joints and shortness of breath were prevalent in approximately 59%, 56% and 45% of subjects as compared to approximately 15%, 11% and 6% of the control population. The relative risk (RR) of developing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases was found to be significantly higher (RR>1) for the traffic policemen than for the office workers. This is the first cross-sectional study to highlight the plight of traffic policemen in the NCT of Delhi. The influence of factors such as body mass index (BMI), age, habits (smoking and alcohol consumption) and service duration on disease prevalence was assessed among traffic policemen using statistical tests. The service duration was found to be the most important determinant compared with other influencing factors such as BMI and age, which significantly (p=0.02) affects the health of traffic policemen in the present study. A number of potential measures for improving the health conditions of traffic policemen are also discussed.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 19 Jun 2017 09:34:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1467689</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Ineffective human control of signalised intersections in developing countries; Case of Dar es Salaam city</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1332743</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Intersections constitute one of the major bottlenecks on road networks that exacerbate congestion; effective control of which is an important strategy in improving traffic flow. While signals can cost-effectively control traffic at intersections, African countries have adopted an increasing trend across the developing world of overriding traffic signals and instead letting traffic police officers guide vehicles. This study has compared the performance of two major signalised intersections in Dar es Salaam city in Tanzania, when operating under the traffic signal and when the traffic police officer is controlling the intersection. Results show that the traffic police officer is not improving the performance of the intersection but rather makes sure that drivers observe traffic rules. The capacity and delay are improved on some approaches of intersections and worsened on others. The findings dispute the widely held view that traffic police officers do a better job than the signals. It has therefore been concluded that simple improvements on signal timing and improving driver’s behaviour through improved enforcement of traffic regulations can better and cost-effectively improve the performance of intersections.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 29 Dec 2014 11:02:32 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1332743</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Optimize Traffic Police Arrangement in Easy Congested Area based on Improved Particle Swarm Optimization</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1317617</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In order to ease the traffic jams in easy congested area, it needs to arrange some traffic policemen to direct the traffic in the congested intersections. Aiming at letting the traffic policemen arrive at the congested intersections quickly, the model of arranging the traffic police is established. This model is a complex optimization problem so it is solved by an intelligent optimization algorithm, Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm. A little change is given to the algorithm so that it is more suitable for the model. Also the process of solving the model with improved Particle Swarm Optimization is given. This model can work out the optimal positions of the traffic police kiosks and the number of policemen in each police kiosk, so the best plan of arranging the police in the easy congested area is acquired. It proves that using this method to arrange the traffic police in the easy congested area can ensure the policemen arriving at the congested intersections in minimum time, preventing the congestion or the spreading of the congestion as soon as possible.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 27 Aug 2014 10:47:15 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1317617</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A Motorist’s Perception on How Fast Should the Police Respond to and Serve for a Traffic Accident</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1284101</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Using the police command center hotline "110" as a channel, this study performed a call back interview to ask the accident reporting motorists about their perceptions on the quality of police service. A concept of fuzzy logic was introduced to measure the qualitative questions characterized with fuzziness. A total of 254 accident reporting motorists in Taipei City were interviewed. The results revealed that no less than 80% of the respondents would be satisfied and no more than 20% of them would be dissatisfied if the police response time could stay within 5 to 10 minutes and service time within 20 to 35 minutes. Both satisfaction and dissatisfaction to the police service time for A2-type accident (injury) were significantly longer than that for A3-type accident (property damage). According to the findings, the current practices of police deployment and accident investigation in Taipei City should be reexamined.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 06 Feb 2014 10:15:52 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1284101</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A Methodology for Estimating Exposure-controlled Crash Risk Using Traffic Police Crash Data</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1280058</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Exposure control or case-control methodologies are common techniques for estimating crash risks, however they require either observational data on control cases or exogenous exposure data, such as vehicle-kilometers traveled. This study proposes an alternative methodology for estimating crash risk of road user groups, whilst controlling for exposure under a variety of roadway, traffic and environmental factors by using readily available police-reported crash data. In particular, the proposed method employs a combination of a log-linear model and quasi-induced exposure technique to identify significant interactions among a range of roadway, environmental and traffic conditions to estimate associated crash risks. The proposed methodology is illustrated using a set of police-reported crash data from January 2004 to June 2009 on roadways in Queensland, Australia. Exposure-controlled crash risks of motorcyclists—involved in multi-vehicle crashes at intersections— were estimated under various combinations of variables like posted speed limit, intersection control type, intersection configuration, and lighting condition. Results show that the crash risk of motorcycles at three-legged intersections is high if the posted speed limits along the approaches are greater than 60 km/h. The crash risk at three-legged intersections is also high when they are unsignalized. Dark lighting conditions appear to increase the crash risk of motorcycles at signalized intersections, but the problem of night time conspicuity of motorcyclists at intersections is lessened on approaches with lower speed limits. This study demonstrates that this combined methodology is a promising tool for gaining new insights into the crash risks of road user groups, and is transferable to other road users.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 27 Jan 2014 09:40:23 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1280058</guid>
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