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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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    <item>
      <title>Stork: A Flexible Optimization Tool for Solving Multiple Vehicle Routing Problem Variants</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2572546</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The growing demand for more personalized transportation services has stressed the necessity for flexible and usable Mobility as a Service solutions, especially in urban scenarios. In this context, this paper presents Stork, an optimization-based tool focused on solving, analyzing, and visualizing all relevant extensions of the vehicle routing problem, the formal representation of the dynamics behind many real-life mobility issues. The tool is capable of solving all the well-known variants of the vehicle routing problem, including, among others, capacities, pickup and delivery, heterogeneous feet, time windows, heterogeneous demands, multiple depots, and 3D loading constraints. In addition, it supports any combination of variants, allowing the user to select exactly which ones are needed to represent the problem at hand. Stork also provides many heuristics for generating initial solutions as well as several metaheuristics to improve them, allowing the user to customize the optimization process. This flexibility allows Stork to be able to handle a wide range of situations, from freight transportation to people mobility. As a case study, a police emergency response service in Girona (Spain) is presented, where Stork is used to both generate a set of routes for the patrol cars to follow as well as perform real-time rerouting to respond to emergency situations that arise during the shift. Finally, the main insights and discussion are concisely presented to show the potential of the proposed tool.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 16 Dec 2025 09:27:48 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2572546</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>On the development and analysis of a comprehensive police patrolling model</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2507308</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Police patrolling is a combination of proactive and reactive tasks. The initial focus is on the development and analysis of a deterministic model which has proactive patrolling tasks consisting of hot spot and general patrolling duties. Two different formulations are developed to address the problem: a compact arc-based and an extensive path-based formulation embedded in a column generation procedure. These formulations incorporate three metrics of efficiency and fairness: density, equity, and dispersion.The authors' model has discrete time steps and seeks to make a balance between hot spot and general patrolling duties by defining details of patrolling routes. The model allows a patrol unit to be at a hot spot for multiple consecutive time steps, thereby allowing foot patrolling to be used at a hot spot. The authors embed the deterministic model in a simulation environment for the purpose of defining proactive patrolling routes while responding to the calls for service. Numerical experiments are conducted to (a) evaluate the computational efficiency of the proposed methods, and (b) explore sensitivity analysis with respect to key parameters. A crime-data based case study is developed to illustrate the utility of the models and methods in a practical situation.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 19 Mar 2025 16:55:09 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2507308</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Young drivers in slow moving vehicles : the impact of A-tractors and moped cars on traffic safety</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2491206</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Slow moving vehicles, A-tractors (also called “EPA”) and moped cars, have in recent years become increasingly popular among young people in Sweden. With their rising popularity, the number of crashes involving these vehicles has also increased. The purpose has been to increase knowledge on crashes involving A-tractors and moped cars, as well as to describe how these vehicles impact traffic safety and the safety of other road users. The study involved crash data from the Swedish Traffic Accident Data Acquisition database (Strada) and interviews with police officers. It became clear that A-tractors and moped cars are a social phenomenon, where the "EPA culture" and group identity are important aspects. These vehicles are used for transportation in both rural and urban areas and for hanging out with friends. How these vehicles are driven affects traffic safety, for those in the vehicles and other road users, as well as the environment. The police reported various driving behaviours and crashes and had opinions on the defects and deliberate modifications on these vehicles.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 17 Jan 2025 15:16:23 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2491206</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>The ongoing electrification in light vehicle public fleets: Lessons learned from an experience at Brazilian public safety sector</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2296414</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper reports a pioneering experience in Brazil of implementing an electrified fleet for the Civil Municipal Guard of the city of São José dos Campos - SP. The main objective is to bring contributions to the expansion of light vehicle public fleet electrification through lessons learned and recommendations established from this case study linked to the public security sector. Semi-structured questionnaires were applied to fleet managers and users, in addition a survey of data on vehicles, fuel and electricity prices, to then present implementation barriers, financial savings estimations and lessons learned with recommendations. The bureaucracy present in public hiring processes and convincing users to change to an unknown technology were the main barriers raised. The implantation presented economic viability, considering the characteristics of the fleet, and demands some adjustments related to the technical specification of the vehicles and chargers to avoid influences on the core activities. Based on these results, the main recommendations are the early and detailed construction of the basic project for contracting, establishing a maintenance plan that includes preventive actions and stock of imported spare parts and a training plan that involves all users, prior experimentation and emphasis on vehicle efficiency and autonomy.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 23 Dec 2023 16:08:36 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2296414</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Polisers inblandning i trafikolyckor under utryckningskörning</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2145653</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Police officers do not always have to follow the traffic rules. Depending on the circumstances and the priority of the task, exceptions from traffic rules may be made. Making exceptions, however, entails an increased risk and can lead to accidents, especially when they must yield the right of way requiring other road users to respond. The purpose of this study is therefore to increase our understanding about the type of traffic accidents that occurred during police emergency driving, what characterizes the drivers of police vehicles who were involved in traffic accidents during emergency driving and what role the human factor played.  The study consists of three sub-studies: i) a database study including data from the Legal, financial and Administrative Services Agency and the Police Authority, ii) a survey completed by 386 police officers who worked in the field, and iii) an interview study with six police officers who were involved in at least one accident during emergency driving.  Based on the results, we recommend: i) that the Police Authority compares the results of this study with, for example, that of the region, gender and age distribution of those police officers working in the field in order to identify overrepresented groups, ii) that the categorization of accidents at the Legal, financial and Administrative Services Agency is reviewed to enable relevant follow-up studies, especially with regard to the type of driving and cause of the accident, and iii) that the Police Authority internally collects the type of information needed to identify causes of traffic accidents to find the right action.  We also recommend that the Police Authority review the need for i) some form of minimum driver experience before they are allowed to drive in an emergency, ii) further improvement to the quality of driver training, iii) more regular advanced driver training, and iv) the possibility of mentoring for newly graduated police officers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 03 Apr 2023 16:45:32 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2145653</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Method of Estimating the Number of Traffic Police Patrols and Standbys</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2019110</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The purpose of the paper is to find a quantitative method that assists frontline traffic police departments with estimating the minimum number of police patrol and standby labor needed. Based on queuing theory and the analysis of the birth/death process, the authors develop and establish a two-dimensional M/M/c/m queuing model. Under the constraint of waiting queuing time required, the authors can obtain the minimum number of police patrol. In terms of the number of the standby traffic police, the authors take the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of emergencies into account and choose the 99th percentile minus the 95th percentile as the minimum number of the standby police. Combined with local traffic data, the authors use the method to measure and estimate the number of the frontline traffic police within the precinct of Beijing Capital International Airport (BCIA), which can optimize shift schedules to meet current performance benchmarks and prevent secondary accidents.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 21 Nov 2022 16:21:20 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2019110</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Improving initial care of road traffic injured people in Tanzania : evaluation of a traffic police first aid education programme</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1894900</link>
      <description><![CDATA[An overwhelming proportion of road traffic deaths and injuries in low- and middle-income countries occurs in prehospital environments. Lay responders such as traffic police officers play an important role in providing initial assistance to victims of road crashes, either alone or in collaboration with others. However, published and unpublished reports indicate that traffic police officers lack appropriate first aid education and therefore competencies to care for road crash victims. The overall aim of this thesis was to evaluate the impact of a post-crash educational programme on traffic police officers’ first aid competencies and application at the workplace. Four interrelated studies were conducted in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 01 Dec 2021 14:46:14 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1894900</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Polisens identifieringsljus : ett fältexperiment och två enkätstudier</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1894882</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The general purpose was to examine the visibility-enhancing and security-enhancing effects of police cruise light. A field experiment with a stationary police vehicle with cruise light was conducted three Friday nights at pedestrian paths by a town square, with many people passing by and meeting each other. In total 2,883 passing pedestrians were registered with regard to if they had seen the police vehicle or not, depending on whether the cruise light was on or not. The effect of cruise light was also compared in daylight versus darkness, on shorter versus longer viewing distance, and on a higher versus a lower police vehicle. Two questionnaire studies were also conducted, whereof one for the general public and one for the police in intervention activities and traffic police (12,723 and 1,132 finished questionnaires, respectively). The questions concerned how visibility-enhancing the cruise light is rated to be and how much more secure the general public feels and how much calmer the traffic is when the police is visibly present. Additionally, the extent of cruise light usage was examined, as well as to what extent the general public has taken notice of this usage. The ratings of the general public were also compared to the ratings of the police, with regard to both the visibility-enhancing effect of cruise light and to how much more secure the general public feels when the police is visibly present.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 01 Dec 2021 14:45:49 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1894882</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Fare inspection patrols scheduling in transit systems using a Stackelberg game approach</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1885616</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study analyzes the scheduling of unpredictable fare inspections in proof-of-payment transit systems, where the transit operator chooses a collection of patrol paths (one for each patrol) every day with some probability in order to avoid any regularity that could be exploited by opportunistic passengers. The authors use a Stackelberg game approach to represent the hierarchical decision-making process between the transit operator and opportunistic passengers, whose decision on whether to evade the fare depends on the inspection probabilities set by the transit operator. Unlike previous work, the authors use an exact formulation of the inspection probabilities that allows them to develop new heuristics for the fare inspection scheduling problem, and to assess their solution quality in terms of their optimality gap.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 17 Nov 2021 14:27:49 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1885616</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Toward Efficient City-Scale Patrol Planning Using Decomposition and Grafting</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1770804</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Motivated by the increasing need of the real-world patrolling, this paper studies a practical city-scale patrolling (CSP) variant. In CSP, the police are scheduled to patrol city regions, and the objective is not only to protect public security but also to respond to incidents timely. The authors use an integer program (IP) to formulate the CSP problem, with the objective of maximizing the police visibility rate (PVR) to improve public safety and the additional constraint of response time guarantee to handle incidents timely. For such an NP-hard problem, existing studies either cannot scale-up or do not provide a bound from optimum. To fill the research gap, the authors propose a decomposition and grafting approach. They first decompose the original CSP into two weakly-coupled subproblems, minimizing police problem (MinP) and maximizing PVR (MaxP) problem. By exploiting the subproblem structures, a polynomial time approximation algorithm is proposed for MinP, and a polynomial time optimal algorithm is proposed for MaxP. They prove that such a decomposition can provide the 1-α approximation ratio, where α is the percentage of the police used in MinP. To further improve patrolling efficiency, a grafting mechanism is proposed to integrate the two subproblems’ solutions. Finally, the authors conduct extensive experiments on the real dataset of Foshan, a modern Chinese city. The results demonstrate that compared with benchmarks, their approach scales well to city-scale problem instances with fine-grained periods, hundreds of regions, and hundreds of police officers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 31 Mar 2021 09:59:07 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1770804</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Assessment of Connected Vehicle on Wyoming Highway Patrol's Workload and Distraction Using Eye-Tracking Technology</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1759940</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Law Enforcement Officers are regularly engaged in secondary driving tasks, drive at high speeds through difficult road and weather conditions, and face increased workloads which may increase the risk of crashes. In-vehicle Advanced Driver Assistant Systems in a Connected Vehicle (CV) environment could help anticipating imminent danger by providing timely warnings about upcoming hazards. However, adding an additional device to the already crowded cab of responders might increase distraction. To study the distraction introduced by CV Human Machine Interface (HMI), 18 Wyoming Highway Patrol troopers participated in a driving simulator experiment and a questionnaire survey. Two scenarios were developed to closely mimic the conditions of Wyoming roadways; a slippery road scenario and a work zone scenario. Three modalities were tested to communicate the CV notifications: (1) Beeps with small icons (SBeeps), (2) Beeps with enlarged icons (EBeeps), and (3) Voice with enlarged icons (EVoice) and were also compared to non-CV baseline scenario. Using Eye-tracking technology, the mean glance time, standard deviation of glance time, and number of glances to the HMI were exploited to assess distraction for the tested modalities. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA showed no significant difference between these parameters for the different modalities. However, the SBeeps modality seemed to have a higher number of distraction events compared to both EBeeps and EVoice. Similarly, based on the questionnaire survey, it was observed that most participants found the CV notifications useful and easy to understand. In terms of distraction, the troopers commented that the EBeeps modality was the least distracting.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 04 Feb 2021 11:00:50 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1759940</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Ett förändrat arbetssätt för rattfylleriövervakning i polisregion Mitt :utvärdering av pilotprojektet Effekt</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1706547</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A new way of organizing drink driving enforcement was tested in a pilot study in a Swedish police region. The aim of the pilot study was to enhance the visibility of drink driving controls, in order to increase the drivers’ perceived risk of being stopped by the police to conduct a breath test. This report presents results from an evaluation of the trial. The goal was to carry out controls for at least 20 hours per 100 km2 per week and each control should last for 20 minutes. The controls were combined with communication efforts, mainly through posts on the police’s Facebook pages.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 14 May 2020 09:43:20 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1706547</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Unfallgeschehen von Pedelecs </title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1576672</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Durch neue technische Entwicklungen, insbesondere im Bereich neuer Antriebsformen, haben sich in den letzten Jahren neue Arten der Mobilitaet ergeben. Dadurch konnten neue Nutzer fuer den Umstieg auf umweltfreundliche Verkehrsmittel gewonnen werden. Ein Beispiel dafuer ist das Pedelec 25 (Pedal Electric Cycle), ein Zweirad das den Benutzer mit Elektromotor beim Treten unterstuetzt. Dadurch wird das Zweirad fuer zusaetzliche Nutzergruppen attraktiv und erhoeht den Aktivitaetsradius gegenueber dem konventionellen Fahrrad. Das Unfallgeschehen von Pedelecs 25 in Deutschland wurde bislang allerdings noch wenig erforscht. Bis 2013 wurden Unfaelle von Fahrraedern und Pedelecs 25 in der amtlichen Unfallstatistik nicht explizit differenziert. Neben den Merkmalen in der amtlichen Unfallstatistik nimmt die unfallaufnehmende Polizei weitere Informationen zum Unfall auf. Dazu gehoert unter anderem die Beschreibung des Unfallhergangs, in der die Polizei als Freitext und gegebenenfalls mit Skizze den Ablauf, moegliche Unfallursachen – die nicht im Unfallursachenkatalog enthalten sind – sowie weitere unfallbeguenstigende Faktoren beschreiben kann. Ziel des Projekts ist es, diese Informationen zu erfassen, zu systematisieren und zu analysieren, um Besonderheiten des Unfallgeschehens mit Pedelecs zu identifizieren. ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH: New technical developments, especially in the field of alternative drive technologies, have resulted in new types of mobility in recent years. This has enabled new users to switch to environmentally friendly means of transport. An example of this is the pedelec 25 (Pedal Electric Cycle), a two-wheeler that supports the user when pedalling with an electric motor. With this innovation, the two-wheeler gets attractive for additional user groups and increase the radius of activity compared to the conventional bicycle. However, little research has been done on accidents involving Pedelecs 25 so far. Until 2013, accidents involving bicycles and Pedelecs 25 were not explicitly differentiated in the official German accident statistics. In addition to the characteristics of the official accident statistics, the police on-site record further information on the accident. This includes, among other things, a description of the accident as a free text and if necessary with a sketch. Thereby, the police can describe the sequence of events, possible accident causes not included in the accident cause catalogue, and other factors that may have an effect on the accident. The aim of this project is to collect, systematise and analyse this information in order to identify special factors of accidents involving Pedelecs 25. ]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 02 Jan 2019 08:51:51 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1576672</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Evaluation of intensified speed enforcement in Police Region West in Sweden</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1573776</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The aim of the present study is to evaluate the new methods for increased speed compliance. Both the police's experience, as well as internal and external communication as effects on mean speeds and speed violations are studied. Police in the western region tested a new method during three autumn weeks in 2016. The intervention entailed intensified speed enforcement on 13 designated routes and the aim was to reduce mean speed. The intervention focused on three different actions: short manual speed controls (20 minutes) on roads with high speeds and a high accident record civil police cars (so-called pilot cars) focusing on aggressive driving monitoring with mobile speed cameras as a complement to the manual speed controls. According to the police’s experiences, the results show that most policemen involved were positive to the intervention overall. It was appreciated that traffic issues appeared on the agenda and the Police received a positive response from the citizens. Basically, they experienced that the 20-minutes method was a good way of working which leads to increased visibility of the Police. The effort also led to more controls than what would have been done otherwise, which was considered as important by the police. Suggestions for improvements are that local police men should be more involved in the selection of roads for enforcement and it was suggested to have several shorter interventions instead of one long.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 12 Dec 2018 10:45:51 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1573776</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Utvärdering av intensiferad hastighetsövervakning i Polisregion Väst</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1573775</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The aim of the present study is to evaluate the new methods for increased speed compliance. Both the police's experience, as well as internal and external communication as effects on mean speeds and speed violations are studied. Police in the western region tested a new method during three autumn weeks in 2016. The intervention entailed intensified speed enforcement on 13 designated routes and the aim was to reduce mean speed. The intervention focused on three different actions: short manual speed controls (20 minutes) on roads with high speeds and a high accident record civil police cars (so-called pilot cars) focusing on aggressive driving monitoring with mobile speed cameras as a complement to the manual speed controls. According to the police's experiences, the results show that most policemen involved were positive to the intervention overall. It was appreciated that traffic issues appeared on the agenda and the Police received a positive response from the citizens. Basically, they experienced that the 20-minutes method was a good way of working which leads to increased visibility of the Police. The effort also led to more controls than what would have been done otherwise, which was considered as important by the police. Suggestions for improvements are that local police men should be more involved in the selection of roads for enforcement and it was suggested to have several shorter interventions instead of one long.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 12 Dec 2018 10:45:49 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1573775</guid>
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