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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
    <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
    <atom:link href="https://trid.trb.org/Record/RSS?s=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" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml" />
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    <language>en-us</language>
    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
    <image>
      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
      <url>https://trid.trb.org/Images/PageHeader-wTitle.jpg</url>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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    <item>
      <title>Submarine Seakeeping and Resistance in Irregular Waves</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2665629</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study presents numerical simulations of submarine motion near the free water surface in the presence of irregular waves, with results compared to calm water conditions. Using the URANS method, the amplitudes of the submarine's heave, pitch, and roll motions were calculated. The hydrodynamic behavior of the submarine was analyzed with STAR-CCM+ in both surface and submerged modes near the free surface. The effects of encounter angles and varying wave characteristics on the amplitude of submarine motions were also investigated. The results show that the largest amplitudes of pitch and heave motions occur in following waves, while the highest amplitude of roll motion is observed in beam waves. Additionally, following waves exhibit the lowest frequency of motion oscillation. In surface mode, due to the increased height of the longitudinal metacenter compared to submerged mode, the amplitude of pitch motions is reduced. However, in surface mode, the stability of the transverse metacenter and the increased influence of wave effects on the free surface lead to greater roll motion amplitudes. The increase in residual resistance in surface mode is greater than the increase in frictional resistance in submerged mode, resulting in higher total resistance in surface mode.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 19 Feb 2026 13:21:05 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2665629</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Numerical investigation into the unsteady flow characteristics around a fully appended SUBOFF model combined with a pump-jet propulsor</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2638179</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study investigates the unsteady forces and flow characteristics of a fully appended SUBOFF model combined with a pump-jet propulsor using a three-dimensional unsteady numerical simulation based on the SST k-ω turbulence model. The propulsor's unsteady forces are analyzed, with numerical simulations and experimental data employed for comparative evaluation. The results demonstrated that the present numerical approach accurately captures the blade passing frequency and unsteady force amplitudes. The unsteady forces on individual blades exhibit periodic variations, primarily due to the non-uniform wake flow generated by the sail and fins. Numerous wake vortices develop downstream of the sail and fins, extending into the propulsor. The study further reveals that the temporal-spatial pressure fluctuations correspond to the spatiotemporal evolution of vortex structures, and the dominant frequencies of pressure fluctuations coincide with the blade passing frequency fb, with the amplitude increasing as the monitoring point approaches the rotor. These findings enhance the understanding of noise generation mechanisms and provide valuable insights for optimizing the design of pump-jet propulsors.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 29 Jan 2026 17:02:24 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2638179</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Legal Analysis of the Establishment of Exclusion Zones for Submarines in Indonesia’s Archipelagic Sea Lanes</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2601471</link>
      <description><![CDATA[AbstractThe Indonesian Archipelagic Sea Lanes (IASLs) are critical to international shipping and modern global trade, which depends on unobstructed access through vital maritime routes, including archipelagic sea lanes (ASLs). However, these lanes represent a strategic vulnerability for Indonesia as an archipelagic state during armed conflict, particularly when submarines, highly stealthy warships, are allowed submerged passage. This article examines the legal framework governing submerged transit by neutral submarines within belligerent ASLs during armed conflict. It identifies gaps in the existing law and proposes the establishment of an underwater exclusion zone for submarines as a potential solution, assessing its legality under international law. The article draws three primary conclusions. First, there is a legal lacuna regarding the permissibility of submerged submarine navigation in ASLs when the archipelagic state is at war. Second, the establishment of exclusion zones in ASLs by a belligerent coastal state is lawful under international law, although ambiguity remains about whether access for neutral shipping is mandatory. Third, an underwater exclusion zone is legally permissible, provided neutral submarines are granted a means of passage.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 23 Dec 2025 09:51:46 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2601471</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The hydrodynamic and flow noise generation mechanisms of XLUUV based on a numerical comparative study</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2618283</link>
      <description><![CDATA[As a key component of an underwater vehicle’s propulsion system, the pump-jet propulsor (PJP) performance is also strongly related to the hull wake. There are mainly rotating hulls represented by an idealized submarine (SUBOFF) and non-rotating hulls represented by an Extra-large Unmanned Underwater Vehicle (XLUUV). This paper numerically investigates the hydrodynamics and flow noise of the PJP behind two typical hulls to analyze the influence of the hull wake flows on the PJP. The flow is obtained by the improved delay detached eddy simulation (IDDES) based on the wall-adapting local-eddy viscosity sub-grid scale model, and the flow noise is obtained by the Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings (FW-H) equation. The numerical results of the base case and the experimental results are in good agreement. The study shows that, owing to the hull shape, the non-rotating hull has higher frictional resistance and pressure difference resistance, rotating hull exhibits better resistance performance. However, the optimal propulsive efficiency of the non-rotating wake is 2% higher than that of the rotating hull. Uniquely, due to the complex low-speed flow generated by the four ribbings of the non-rotating hull, the thrust frequency domain distribution of the PJP behind it is more prominent at the quadruple axial frequency, and the flow noise at the characteristic point is 3.2 dB higher than that of the PJP behind the rotating hull. The rotating hull shows better acoustic stealth.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 22 Dec 2025 17:03:49 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2618283</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Numerical investigation of straight-line maneuver of a submarine near the free surface</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2614877</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study investigated the hydrodynamic characteristics and motion response of a submarine operating near the free surface. A free-running submarine simulation was developed using overset grids and autopilot control, and the results were validated against experimental data. The results showed that near-surface operation intensified the tail suction, increasing the propeller thrust and torque while inducing larger pitch/roll amplitudes and rudder deflections. The free surface influence becomes negligible at submergence depths (D₀/L) > 0.5. When the submarine operates with its sail partially exposed, the pressure resistance increases by 205 %, accompanied by a distinct local pressure peak on the upper surface of the sail. Velocity field analyses revealed significant fluid dispersion toward the free surface, resulting in pronounced wave generation and a characteristic V-shaped wake pattern. Furthermore, the vortex dynamics above the sail and rudder exhibited enhanced intensity and diffusion, with the vortex structures adopting a V-shaped spatial distribution. Moreover, with a decrease in submergence depth, the rotational effect of the flow weakened near the bow and intensified near the stern on the upper surface of the submarine. These findings provide key insights for near-surface submarine maneuverability.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 05 Dec 2025 14:08:31 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2614877</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Numerical investigations on the kinematic response of a submarine during emergency ascent subject to internal solitary waves</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2618137</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A submarine can experience hazardous descent under the influence of internal solitary waves (ISWs). Emergency ballast water discharge is a primary measure for initiating ascent. A numerical model is developed to investigate the kinematic response of an ascending submarine interacting with ISWs within a continuously stratified fluid. The overset grid method and rigid-body motion equations are employed to simulate hydrodynamic forces and dynamic responses. The simulated results demonstrate that discharge volume is the paramount factor determining surfacing success. Insufficient discharge (e.g., <10 s with a rate of 1000 kg/s) traps the submarine in oscillatory motion within the pycnocline, while sustained discharge (>20 s with a rate of 1000 kg/s) enables successful surfacing under ISWs of 40 m amplitude. Initial depth significantly affects the attitude of the submarine. When initially positioned below and in close proximity to the pycnocline, specifically within the depth range of the pycnocline when the ISW trough passes, pitch angle gradually increases as the submarine approaches the surface, resulting in a bow-up attitude. When initially positioned below the pycnocline at a significant distance, specifically beyond the depth range of the pycnocline when the ISW trough passes, the submarine's pitch angle gradually decreases during its ascent toward the surface.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 21 Nov 2025 08:44:17 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2618137</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Benchmark Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes study of a generic marine rudder’s static stall characteristics</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2604980</link>
      <description><![CDATA[When assessing manoeuvring performance it is common to perform steady Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes computations for a range of turning conditions. It is then critical to reliably and accurately predict rudder forces. A recent collaborative benchmark study showed inconsistent capturing of stall effects on aft control surfaces for a generic submarine. To investigate this issue, the authors present a new generic marine rudder and the influence of the numerical setup on the prediction of its static stall characteristics. The authors demonstrate the existence of a static hysteresis loop, which the authors compute with Menter’s k−ω SST turbulence model at a full-scale Reynolds number of 7.44×10⁶. One branch shows a light trailing-edge stall with a high lift coefficient, and the other a deep stall with a low lift coefficient. The authors show how the initial conditions and solution methodology affect which solution is achieved. Notably, even 1∘ below the low limit in the hysteresis loop, an incorrect deep-stall result can be obtained when using a free-stream initialization, due to poor iterative convergence. In contrast, potential-flow initialization and unsteady RANS methods effectively produce the correct high-lift solution below the hysteresis loop. A discretization analysis at α=24∘ shows that six flow solvers produce consistent results to within a small discretization uncertainty.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 13 Oct 2025 13:53:24 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2604980</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Numerical analysis of the far wake flow behind a submarine with full appendages</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2583026</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Wake flow behind underwater vehicles such as submarines was widely researched with its impacts on propulsion or antisubmarine technology. Extensive research was performed on the near wake for its hydrodynamics of propulsion, but the far wake flow was given less attention owing to its huge challenges and expensive costs. In this study, a long-range wake evolution behind a full-size Suboff submarine with full appendages is numerically investigated by the Delayed Detached Eddy Simulation (DDES) method, which provides a reference for submarine shape design and wake detection. Evolution of vortex structures near the sail and tail is detailed, including the modes of horseshoe vortex, hairpin vortex and tip vortex. The diffusion of vortex along the wake at specific speed is also focused, by using a slice analysis of vorticity and velocity. When dimensionless velocity profiles in different slices of the wake are stacked up, the overlay shows a pretty coincident contour in velocity deficit behind the submarine. The equations for velocity deficit and wake range are fitted by the orthogonal distance regression principle for further application.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 30 Sep 2025 16:50:35 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2583026</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Steady and dynamic load measurements over a generic submarine hull form with various appendage configurations</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2583013</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Experimental studies for the steady and dynamic loads over a generic submarine hull form (SUBOFF) with various appendage configurations in submerged motion was investigated through scaled model tests in the High Speed Towing Tank facility at Naval Science & Technological Laboratory, India. Steady load measurements were performed for a range of angles of incidence in angle of attack (± 35°) and drift (0° to 35°) including control surface deflections (± 20°). Measurements for dynamic loads were performed in both vertical and horizontal plane of motion for oscillating frequencies ranging from 0.21 to 0.55 Hz. The studies were carried out for four different configurations of SUBOFF comprising of bare hull, bare hull with sail, bare hull with control fins and fully appended hull. The aim of the present study for the load measurements is to gather steady and dynamic force/moment data, estimate hydrodynamic coefficients, validate and extend such data over a wide range of operation scenarios experienced by a submarine including high angle of incidence. The particulars of the SUBOFF model, experimental facility and measurement technique, test results for load measurements and estimated hydrodynamic coefficients are highlighted in the paper. The measurements data generated from the above studies will greatly complement the current research on hydrodynamic load characteristics for submerged bodies both computationally and experimentally.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 30 Sep 2025 16:50:34 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2583013</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Computational analysis of submerged submarine bow hull dynamics subjected to torpedo blunt impact and warhead detonation events</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2577614</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In the maritime sector, ensuring the survivability of ships and submarines against diverse threats such as torpedo impacts, Underwater Explosion (UNDEX) events, and environmental factors is paramount. Comprehensive analysis of hull dynamics under various impact scenarios is essential. Numerical simulations of these impacts utilize different material models, ship grounding tests, impact modes, UNDEX simulations, and failure mechanisms. In the current study, the blunt impact of a torpedo on the submarine bow and the surface detonation effects of the torpedo warhead (at different distances from the hull) on the submarine bow structure were analyzed within an underwater enclosure. The torpedo design was based on the MK-48, with Ti6Al4V alloy used for the torpedo hull and HY-80 steel for the submarine hull. The impact simulations were conducted using ANSYS Explicit Dynamics® computational software. For the blunt impact scenario, a torpedo speed of 55 knots (102 km/h) was used. For the UNDEX studies, the warhead at the front end of the torpedo was modeled using PBX-9501 (a commonly used high explosive in warheads). The novelty of the current work was the employment of a water enclosure in the model to simulate the underwater impacts. The analysis focused on hull deformation, equivalent plastic and elastic strains, equivalent stress and damage profiles for the different impact scenarios. To effectively capture fluid–structure interactions, the study also examined pressure variations within the Eulerian domain. Among the scenarios analyzed, the near-field detonation of the warhead emerged as the most destructive, resulting in severe structural damage to the bow hull. In contrast, the blunt impact of the torpedo induced moderate plastic deformation, while the far-field detonation resulted in minimal damage.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 14 Aug 2025 17:10:56 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2577614</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Experimental and numerical study of rudder torque for BB2 generic submarine under steering conditions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2577492</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In rudder mechanism design, hydrodynamic loads on the rudder during steering motion play a crucial role. Most of the studies focus on the ship's maneuvering motion after rudder steering, while the loads such as rudder force and rudder shaft torque are less studied. In this study, the authors analyzed the rudder shaft torque under different steering conditions, conducted steering tests on the model scale Joubert BB2 submarine, and simulated the rudder shaft torque using the Simcenter STAR-CCM + based on the CFD method of the viscous flow theory, and got the change rule of the rudder shaft torque caused by changes in the parameters of the navigational speed, rudder angle, and rudder speed, etc. The rudder shaft torque prediction expression specific to the studied submarine and its configuration is given. The study shows that: the CFD simulation accurately reflects the change of rudder shaft torque in the process of rudder maneuvering; the rudder shaft torque has a linear relationship with the square of the speed and the steering rate, and has a sinusoidal relationship with the rudder angle; and the prediction expression given is relatively accurate.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 24 Jul 2025 11:34:34 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2577492</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Modelling out-of-plane hydrodynamic hysteresis in horizontal submarine maneuvers with indicial responses</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2577476</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Predicting the transient hydrodynamic loads in submarine maneuvering simulations has traditionally been limited to quasi-steady modelling assumptions which are not well-founded in extreme maneuvering scenarios. Recent studies have shown that the time-history of the wake is significant for the out-of-plane hydrodynamics of a submarine in horizontal maneuvers. Despite efforts of modelling these effects with integral-type impulse response methods, known within the vehicle dynamics community as indicial theory, the complex separation and development of the wake surrounding the hull causes significant modelling errors in high frequency oscillation maneuvers. This study investigates characteristics of the time-domain hydrodynamic response of an SSK-class submarine, and a corresponding reduced-order model implementation. Model predictions for a set of small and large amplitude drift oscillation maneuvers are used to demonstrate the shortcomings of the current model formulation. A revised model designed to modify the high-frequency response of the vehicle is shown to significantly improve the qualitative and quantitative performances of the model in large amplitude oscillations.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 24 Jul 2025 11:34:34 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2577476</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The effect of information integration on team communication in a simulated submarine control room task</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2526521</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Submarine control rooms are characterised by dedicated individual roles for information types (e.g. Sonar operator processes sound energy), with individuals verbally reporting the information that they receive to other team members to help resolve uncertainty in the operational environment (low information integration). The authors compared this work design with one that ensured critical information was more readily available to all team members (high information integration). The authors used the Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork (EAST) method to analyse task, information, and social networks for novice teams operating within a simulated submarine control room under low versus high information integration. Integration impacted team member centrality (importance relative to other operators) and the nature of information shared. Team members with greater centrality reported higher workload. Higher integration across consoles altered how team members interacted and their relative status, the information shared, and how workload was distributed. However, overall network structures remained intact.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 08 Jul 2025 09:57:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2526521</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Validation of CFD-based 6DoF free running simulations of the BB2 submarine and effects of high-speed and control surface rotation rate on maneuverability</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2564523</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study develops a computational fluid dynamics (CFD)-based free running simulation methodology for submerged bodies, addressing four objectives: (1) establishing a systematic CFD framework incorporating uncertainty analysis, neutral buoyancy verification, and automated self-propulsion point identification; (2) comprehensively validating CFD results against experimental data; (3) predicting submarine maneuvering at high-speed conditions difficult to test experimentally; and (4) analyzing control surface rotation rate effects on maneuverability. Unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) CFD simulations with 6-degree-of-freedom (6DoF) motion were performed using a 1/15 scale BB2 submarine model with an X-rudder configuration. Proportional-derivative (PD) control logic regulated X-rudder and sail plane angles to govern vertical and horizontal motion using a sliding interface. Neutral buoyancy was verified, and numerical convergence was assessed under straight self-propulsion conditions, determining a fine mesh and a time step of 0.0023 L/U for reliable results. A proportional-integral (PI) control gain was validated to identify the self-propulsion point within 10 L/U, enhancing automation. CFD simulations of horizontal turning, zigzag, and vertical zigzag maneuvers were conducted at a full-scale speed of 10 knots and compared to published experimental data. Results showed strong agreement, with deviations in maneuvering indices within 1 % and overshoot angles within 1°. During the turning maneuver, both experimental data and CFD results revealed a stern-down attitude and increased submergence. These phenomena are likely caused by the hydrodynamic derivatives Mvv and Zvv, together with the asymmetric pressure distribution between the upper and lower hull surfaces under oblique flow conditions. The validated methodology was extended to a high-speed condition of 20 knots, revealing increased vertical motion and roll angle due to horizontal motion coupling. In the vertical 20° elevator maneuver, a stable ascent occurred at 10 knots, while a helical pattern emerged at 20 knots. Reducing the control surface rotation rate by half significantly affected the 1st overshoot angle in zigzag maneuvers. These findings confirm the reliability of CFD-based free running simulations for submarine maneuvering prediction, providing validated control gains for self-propulsion identification and an optimal time step for convergence. The study also elucidates the impact of high-speed conditions and control surface dynamics on maneuverability, offering valuable insights for submarine design and operation.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 24 Jun 2025 15:24:48 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2564523</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Unsteady hydrodynamic performance of a submarine with a new kind of pump-jet propulsor</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2564521</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A novel pump-jet propulsor (PJP) incorporating a fusion-duct is installed on the Suboff submarine. The fusion-duct is unified with the hull rather than being a separate component. This study utilizes computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to investigate the influence of the key propulsion parameters, including inlet radius, tip clearance and the duct outlet diameter, on the hydrodynamic performance of the novel PJP mounted to the submarine. Thrust, torque, and efficiency are systematically compared for different PJP configuration to quantitatively evaluate the propulsion performance, with a detailed analysis of the velocity and pressure fields. In addition, the pressure fluctuation spectra under different design parameters are used to reflect the intensity of pressure variations at key locations on the surfaces of the rotor blades, stator blades, and within the duct interior. The duct outlet diameter exerts the significant influence on the dynamics performance, as indicated by the research. Moreover, the pressure fluctuation demonstrates high sensitivity to the tip clearance, particularly at regions on the rotor leading edge and within inlet channel.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 24 Jun 2025 15:24:48 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2564521</guid>
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