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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <title>Advanced technologies to enhance rural access: A case study of healthcare in Namibia</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2692646</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Namibia is a large, low-density country with numerous rural communities, where access to healthcare services is challenging. The objective of this study was to assess the status of rural access to healthcare through stakeholder engagement and interviews, and to understand if emerging technologies, such as drones, could supplement traditional transportation infrastructure expansion to increase healthcare access. A case study was conducted in rural Kavango East, Namibia, focusing on 22 healthcare clinics where interviews were administered to 47 healthcare workers and 12 local citizens. A conventional content analysis was used to analyze the data. Most healthcare worker participants indicated that their patient populations are rural, publicly insured, and travel great distances on foot to reach them. Treatment availability for infectious diseases is common, whereas heart disease and stroke treatments are less readily available. Transportation shortcomings, resource shortages, and lack of access to quality care were heavily emphasized among participants. The preliminary data indicated that local citizens are receptive to the use of technologies to provide innovative solutions to increase their access to healthcare. Therefore, the authors applied a geospatial modeling exercise to determine the effect that drones could have on enhancing rural accessibility. Results suggest that a network of three drone stations can feasibly reach more than 50% of the currently isolated Kavango East population, and a network of seven drone stations can reach more than 90% of this population. This proof-of-concept analysis demonstrates how drone technology can be utilized to improve healthcare accessibility issues in rural Kavango East.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 28 Apr 2026 17:05:55 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2692646</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Assessing road transport emissions in Namibia: Trends, policies and mitigation strategies</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2643047</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Namibia is at a critical inflection point in its efforts to manage road transport emissions, with the sector now responsible for more than half of the country's energy-related CO₂ output. This study applies the Computer Programme to Calculate Emissions from Road Transport (COPERT) combined with national fuel consumption and fleet data to estimate emissions and project future trajectories in Namibia. CO₂ emissions were calculated using Tier 1 fuel-based and Tier 2 activity-based methods. Two scenarios were considered: a business-as-usual (BAU) pathway and a mitigation pathway reflecting stricter import policies, fuel efficiency improvements, electric vehicle uptake, and public transport expansion. Results show that CO₂ emissions are projected to increase from 2.1 million tonnes in 2023 to almost 3.0 million tonnes by 2030 under BAU. The mitigation scenario reduces projected emissions to about 1.0 and 1.2 million tonnes, demonstrating significant potential but falling short of Namibia's Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) targets. The findings indicate that heavy-duty vehicles and buses contribute disproportionately to pollutants, underscoring the urgency of policy interventions with both climate and public health benefits. Furthermore, the findings highlight both the urgency and feasibility of strengthening Namibia's transport policies. While emission reductions are technically achievable through combined interventions, implementation will require overcoming financial, institutional and cultural barriers, and expanding national capacity for emissions monitoring and enforcement.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 23 Mar 2026 15:15:32 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2643047</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Microscopic evaluation of traffic operations on urban arterial roads: the case of Ongwediva, Namibia</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2571430</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study aimed to assess traffic operations using micro-simulation (PTV VISSIM) techniques along Mandume Ndemufayo Street in Ongwediva during both morning and evening peak hours. Micro-simulation has been highlighted as a valuable tool for planning and assessing transportation strategies to enhance effectiveness and sustainability. Data collection involved parameters like traffic volume, vehicle composition, and turning proportions. Screen-line counts were executed at chosen intersections. The developed PTV VISSIM model was calibrated and validated to accurately reflect real traffic conditions, facilitating the evaluation of various intersection control scenarios. Simulation outcomes indicated a substantial reduction in vehicle delay and stoppage, ranging from 30 % to 87 %, upon the introduction of traffic signals. Additionally, the total and maximum queue lengths diminished by 2 % to 80% at selected intersections. Overall, traffic signal control proved instrumental in enhancing traffic operations and reducing emissions by 20 % to 40 %. The study recommendations offer a comprehensive approach to tackling traffic management and urban planning challenges in Ongwediva, potentially enhancing the overall quality of life, safety, and sustainability, and fostering economic growth and efficiency. This study assessed traffic congestion in Ongwediva, providing strategic interventions to reduce peak-hour delays. The findings could serve as a comparative reference for improving traffic management across Namibia, enhancing road network performance, and stimulating economic activities, including trade, agriculture, and tourism. Additionally, increased mobility will improve access to essential services. The research will also contribute to the empirical knowledge base, particularly in using micro-simulation modelling for traffic management in developing countries, with potential policy implications for Namibia. Furthermore, this research contributes to the existing body of knowledge by providing scarce empirical references on the application of micro-simulation in developing countries, notably Namibia. Future studies could delve into the intricacies of intermodal conditions and explore the utilisation of advanced digital tools like Artificial Intelligence in traffic management within the context of developing countries.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 23 Sep 2025 17:10:03 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2571430</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Non-motorised transport infrastructure provision, policies and strategies in secondary urban African towns: the case of Namibia</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2571426</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Road infrastructure planning in Oshakati (Namibia) is mostly focused on accommodating the uninterrupted flow of vehicles. This phenomenon combined with an increasing number of non-motorised transport (NMT) users has led to policy and planning challenges, and unacceptable levels of road safety issues for NMT users. The complexities of secondary towns were evident in the study with a mismatch between development planning and expert perceptions, and the mobility realities. An assessment of the mobility environment was undertaken to inform on the pedestrian and cyclists’ (NMT) mobility characteristics. The study also engaged experts (policy- and decision-makers) through interviews and the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) to understand the planning and implementation perceptions, strategies and policies in Oshakati. The study identified a lack of connectivity and poor surface conditions on most of the NMT routes, coupled with poor access management along the main roads in the town. This led to poor pedestrian and cyclist safety, and an overall poor pedestrian level of service. The poor safety conditions were exacerbated by busy roadside activities (mostly informal traders using NMT-designated facilities). Even though a general NMT guide document was available, there seemed to be a lack of implementation efforts, which could be attributed to limited financial and human resources. Furthermore, the guide in place was adopted and developed with a bias towards standards and guidelines focused on major urban centres (City of Windhoek). The study proposed a contextual phased strategy, focusing on creating awareness and developing a dynamic and stepwise responsive approach to NMT planning and implementation.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 23 Sep 2025 17:10:03 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2571426</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Deep-learning based recognition on paved road shoulder for the Namibia B2 highway</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2548190</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The number of road crash-related deaths worldwide has continued to steadily grow, reaching 1.35 million deaths every year. Low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) bear a disproportionately high number of these deaths in relation to both their population size and the total number of in-use vehicles. One of the daunting challenges facing LMICs is the lack of road safety features and built environment and their required maintenance, which can be attributed to the rising road safety concerns. Namibia, in Sub-Saharan Africa is no exception. Routine road safety audits (RSA) can aid in locating areas of the road network that need maintenance and/or require the installation of safety features. However, constrained by the limited resources for road safety initiatives, RSA are rarely performed in Namibia and LMICs. Therefore, this study demonstrates a low-cost open-source technique that can be fairly used as a supplementary tool to ease the practice of RSA in LMICs. The study presents a Deep-learning approach for classification of the presence of road shoulder and its width on a small dataset from the Highway B2 in Namibia using open access Google Street View images. Results indicate that road shoulder width can clearly be classified with open-source software, readily available models, and open access data. Results from this study have the potential to lower the overall cost of RSA in LMICs and allow for the prudent allocation of limited transportation-related funding that can create a positive impact on road safety problems in these countries.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 26 Jun 2025 11:42:15 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2548190</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The potential and limits of the distance-based road user charging system in developing countries: Empirical evidence from Namibia</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2492900</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Although the road funding framework in Namibia has been regarded as an exemplary model for developing countries, recent evidence has shown that the Road User Charges (RUCs) generated through the Roads Fund to supplement the fiscal budgetary allocations are not sustainable as the charges are not efficiently priced to generate optimal funds. Hence, this study was aimed at exploring alternative financing models for roads for Namibia, with the possibility of generalising study findings to other developing countries. The Road Network Evaluation Tool (RONET) model was applied to conduct a strategic assessment of the road network funding requirements and analyse the extent of the funding gap on both the primary and total road networks. Further, a scenario-based evaluation of alternative financing models was performed. Study results showed that the road user charges, particularly the fuel levy is set too low to generate sufficient revenue to meet the optimal funding scenario for the road network in Namibia. In addition, the study found that the introduction of a Distance-Based RUCS (DBRUCS) on the primary road network in Namibia with private sector participation is potentially feasible and could help capture some of the costs of road use that are currently not captured by the road user charges.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 10 Feb 2025 09:32:22 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2492900</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Anti-unmanned aerial vehicle detection system for airports: aviation and national security perspective</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2379730</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Unmanned Aerial Vehicles gained significant popularity in the last decade as demonstrated by their wide usage in various fields. From around the year 2001, the usage of unmanned aerial vehicles’ technology was mainly confined to law enforcement agencies such as the military, police, and customs. In the contemporary, terrorists have also been observed to be using unmanned aerial vehicles to attack aviation facilities. The current paper examines the levels of vulnerability of the Namibian airports to possible intrusion and attack from unmanned aerial vehicles, a situation that could pose a serious threat to aviation and national security. Adopting a qualitative research approach, the study made use of a questionnaire and semi-structured interview guide to collect primary data from the participants. Microsoft Excel was used to analyse the data. The study establishes that Namibian airports are prone to attacks from unmanned aerial vehicles as there are no anti-unmanned aerial vehicle detection systems installed at all airports in the country. Thus, there is clear evidence that the Namibia Civil Aviation Authority and the Namibian Airport Company’s regulations and policies on aviation safety and security did not prioritise the installation of anti-unmanned aerial vehicle detection systems at all airports in Namibia. The paper suggests that, in order to enhance aviation safety and security, a joint civil/military Information Technology Unit, responsible for spoofing, detection, and the monitoring of illicit unmanned aerial vehicle operations should be set up and operations activated at all airports and other public infrastructures in Namibia.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 14 Jun 2024 10:27:11 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2379730</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Crash severity analysis of single-vehicle rollover crashes in Namibia: A mixed logit approach</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2260910</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Road traffic crashes are a leading cause of serious injuries and fatalities globally and place unnecessary developmental and economic burdens on low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) as they account for the vast majority of the world's road related deaths. This is typically due to both the increased frequency of dangerous crash types and the increased severity of said crash types. Rollover crashes while quite rare are a particularly dangerous crash type among other various crash types. In the case of Namibia, rollover crashes reportedly accounted for 34% of both road related injuries and fatalities in Namibia for 2020. When compared to high-income countries the issue of rollover crash severity in Namibia and like sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries becomes apparent. Therefore, it crucial to understand the contributing factors and their associated effects on rollover crash severities in these countries. This study aims to investigate and identify the significant factors influencing crash severities and their associated impact magnitudes on single-vehicle rollover crashes in Namibia by adopting a mixed logit with heterogeneity in means and variances approach to account for unobserved heterogeneity in the data. Although it is not without its limitations the dataset used in this study includes single-vehicles rollover crash instances from 2014 to 2016 within Namibia and is able to provide unique details for the crash observations including various driver, environmental, roadway, and vehicle characteristics. Results from this study indicate several factors including weekends, open roadways, and minibuses to be significantly increasing the crash severity of single-vehicle rollover crashes. Additionally, results provide a basis for which researchers and policy makers can understand rollover crashes in Namibia and adopt an appropriate approach to address this issue, such as, Safe Systems. Such an approach would include but not be limited to the implementation of roadside features, educational campaigns, speed enforcement, and vehicle standards policy.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 07 Nov 2023 16:01:20 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2260910</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Inter-site variability in the Cape fur seal's behavioural response to boat noise exposure</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2260492</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The impact of man-made noise on wildlife is recognised as a major global concern affecting many taxa in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, with the degree of impact varying among individuals or species. Understanding the factors inducing intra-species differences in response to noise is essential for the development of adapted and effective mitigation measures. This study compares the behavioural response of Cape fur seals to boat noise exposures at two study sites showing differences in their level of exposure to anthropogenic activities, and individual composition. Increased vigilance was found for Lambert's Bay seals exposed to high noise level (70–80 dB) compared to those tested at Cape Town harbour. Comparisons with a similar study performed in Namibia were made. Intrinsic factors such as individuals' age-class, sex or arousal state as well as extrinsic factors such as the ambient noise and the nature/extent of human-seal interactions were suggested to induce such variation.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 23 Oct 2023 16:52:52 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2260492</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Factors determining the number of seabirds impacted by oil spills and the success of their rehabilitation: Lessons learned from Namibia and South Africa</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2117995</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The coastal waters of Namibia and South Africa have an extensive history of oil spills, with 71 recorded up to 2021. Thirty-nine spills reportedly affected 83,224 seabirds, with African penguins (Spheniscus demersus; 91.0 %) and Cape gannets (Morus capensis; 8.5 %) most affected. Spills affecting seabirds were caused by unknown sources (46 %), bulk/cargo carriers (43 %), tankers (38 %) and ship-to-ship transfers (14 %). The number of penguins oiled was predicted by the breeding population size within 25 to 75 km, but not the volume of oiled spilled, the month or the year. Rehabilitation records from penguins oiled in spills since 2001 reveal that the day of admission (relative to the start of the spill) was predictive of packed cell volume, body mass, and plasma total solids, with the latter two being predictive of rehabilitation success. The authors' results highlight the importance of rapid monitoring at colonies to locate oiled birds in the event of spills.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 23 Mar 2023 16:58:25 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2117995</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>An analysis on the risk of being injured and killed in road travel injuries in Namibia</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1854541</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Road traffic injuries (RTIs) are a major, global problem. Few studies on RTIs have been conducted in Namibia, despite having one of the highest RTI rates globally. The authors conducted multinomial logistic regression on national Namibian datasets on RTIs 2012–2014. Being a motorcyclist was associated with the greatest risk of being injured (adjusted Relative Risk Ratio (aRRR) 82.1 (95% CI 47.2–142.9)) or killed (aRRR 202.1 (112.7–362.7)). Risks were also elevated for cyclists (57.3 (23.6–139.5)), pedestrians (15.8 (13.2–18.9), passengers (6.1 (5.2–7.2)), relative to drivers. Among those admitted to hospital, the method of transportation to hospital had the largest association with the risk of dying. To the authors' knowledge this study presents new information on vulnerability of different road users, which can be of use to policymakers to develop specific and targeted interventions to protect the most vulnerable road users.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 19 Aug 2021 16:26:34 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1854541</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Road traffic injuries in Namibia: health services, public health and the motor vehicle accident fund</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1854538</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Namibia is one of five countries in sub-Saharan Africa that has a fuel tax levy designed to support road injury victims. This study examines how the scheme operates from the perspective of seriously injured or permanently disabled beneficiaries. Using qualitative methods, the authors conducted semi-structured interviews with road traffic injuries (RTI) survivors in Namibia, and healthcare workers involved in caring for them, in order to investigate the role played by the Motor Vehicle Accident Fund (MVAF). While some wealthier drivers continue to buy private insurance, most Namibians now rely on the MVAF. The analysis show the MVAF is effectively helping to enhance access to rehabilitation and other health services for RTI survivors. There however exist some weaknesses in the system which can be addressed. It is hoped these findings will contribute to discussions about whether the current system is fit for purpose and could serve as a replicable model in other low and middle-income countries (LMICs).]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 19 Aug 2021 16:26:34 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1854538</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The duration of travel impacts the spatial dynamics of infectious diseases</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1738030</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The spatial dynamics of infectious-disease spread are driven by the biology of the pathogen and the connectivity patterns among human populations. Models of disease spread often use mobile-phone calling records to calculate the number of trips made among locations in the population, which is used as a proxy for population connectivity. However, the amount of time people spend in a destination (trip duration) also impacts the probability of onward disease transmission among locations. Here, the authors developed models that incorporate trip duration into the mechanism of disease spread, which helps them understand how fast and how far a pathogen might spread in a human population. Humans can impact the spatial transmission dynamics of infectious diseases by introducing pathogens into susceptible environments. The rate at which this occurs depends in part on human-mobility patterns. Increasingly, mobile-phone usage data are used to quantify human mobility and investigate the impact on disease dynamics. Although the number of trips between locations and the duration of those trips could both affect infectious-disease dynamics, there has been limited work to quantify and model the duration of travel in the context of disease transmission. Using mobility data inferred from mobile-phone calling records in Namibia, the authors calculated both the number of trips between districts and the duration of these trips from 2010 to 2014. The authors fit hierarchical Bayesian models to these data to describe both the mean trip number and duration. Results indicate that trip duration is positively related to trip distance, but negatively related to the destination population density. The highest volume of trips and shortest trip durations were among high-density districts, whereas trips among low-density districts had lower volume with longer duration. The authors also analyzed the impact of including trip duration in spatial-transmission models for a range of pathogens and introduction locations. The authors found that inclusion of trip duration generally delays the rate of introduction, regardless of pathogen, and that the variance and uncertainty around spatial spread increases proportionally with pathogen-generation time. These results enhance the authors' understanding of disease-dispersal dynamics driven by human mobility, which has potential to elucidate optimal spatial and temporal scales for epidemic interventions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 02 Oct 2020 10:00:43 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1738030</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Cost Estimation of Road Wear Due to Heavy Vehicles on the Namibian Paved Road Network</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1740067</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper presents the results of a newly-developed methodology that quantifies the road wear caused by heavy vehicles on the Namibian paved road network in terms of equivalent standard axles and a monetary value. This was achieved by converting the spectrum of heavy vehicles travelling on the Namibian trunk road network per road section in one year to an equivalent number of standard axle-km travelled in the same year and multiplying the standard axle-km by the estimated unit construction and maintenance costs per uniform pavement section on the road network. The conversion of the spectrum of heavy vehicles to an equivalent number of standard axle-km travelled involved the calculation of load equivalency factors for the different vehicle configurations using the South African Mechanistic Empirical Design Method, which is based on data obtained from the Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) and Stress-In-Motion (SIM) systems over the past few decades. Data obtained from the Namibia Roads Authority included traffic count data, weighbridge data, road network data and pavement data. This study has allowed for the development of a suitable platform to efficiently and with improved accuracy calculate the cost of road wear caused by heavy vehicles on the Namibian paved road network. The developed methodology will enable the Roads Authority to monitor changes in the road wear costs attributed to heavy vehicles. It also provides the Road Authority with a tool to determine the effect of initiatives such as improved overload control and for making more informed strategic decisions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 29 Sep 2020 11:19:59 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1740067</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>An analysis of risk factors associated with road crash severities in Namibia</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1730423</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Road crash is a leading cause of death and disabilities in Namibia and other developing countries. Based on recent trends, the World Health Organization indicated that progress to realize Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target 3.6 – which calls for a 50% reduction in the number of road traffic deaths by 2020 – remains far from sufficient. To contribute to efforts in reducing road fatalities in Namibia, this study examined risk factors associated with the severity of crashes recorded in the country. Mixed logit modelling methodology was adopted to address the problem of unobserved heterogeneity in injury severity analysis. Model estimation results reveal that collision with pedestrians, head-on collisions, ran-off road collisions and crashes involving high occupancy passenger vehicles were more likely to result in fatalities and severe injuries. The findings and recommendations of this study are expected to enhance countermeasure implementation to reduce road crashes in Namibia.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 22 Sep 2020 14:28:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1730423</guid>
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