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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <item>
      <title>Congestion tolling — Dollars versus tokens: Within-day dynamics</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2008688</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Tradable credit schemes (or tolling in tokens) are a form of quantity control, which promise to be an appealing alternative to congestion pricing (or tolling in dollars) owing to considerations of revenue neutrality, equity, reduced infrastructure costs, and political acceptability. The comparative performance of the two instruments under uncertainty in demand and supply has only recently received attention in the transportation setting, despite being widely studied for emission markets. In this paper, the authors add to this literature by considering a tradable credit scheme in a departure time context wherein users are provided an initial endowment of tokens by the regulator and incur a token charge (determined prior to all departures) to travel in a specific time-period. Tokens can be bought and sold within a marketplace at a price determined endogenously by token demand and supply. Two key features of the market model are: (1) the time-of-day dynamics of price is explicitly modeled through a smooth market clearing mechanism in each period, and (2) the selling decisions of users, which determine the distribution of token supply in the market over the day are explicitly modeled. This enables the authors to study the impact of selling behavior on performance of the credit system. Travel demand is modeled using a logit mixture model and supply consists of static congestion. Extensive experiments under stochastic demand show that when the tolls (in dollars and tokens) are not day-to-day adaptive, tolling in tokens outperforms tolling in dollars when congestion effects are more severe (e.g., realistic BPR models and steep congestion functions, high demand levels and high day-to-day variability). Importantly, the authors find that this result is robust with respect to selling behavior in the market, although there can be welfare losses in the quantity control system when selling behavior in the market is excessively irrational. These findings underscore the importance of examining disaggregate market behavior when designing tradable credit schemes. Moreover, when the supply of tokens can be adapted from day to day, the credit system was found to be superior in all tested scenarios, provided the selling behavior of individuals is rational. Finally, even in the case when toll revenues in the price instrument are equally redistributed (often difficult in practice), tolling in tokens (when tokens are equally distributed) is marginally more equitable in scenarios where congestion effects are more severe. These findings make a case for tolling in tokens.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 28 Sep 2022 11:38:05 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2008688</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Diverging effects of subjective prospect values of uncertain time and money</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1910818</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Studies from behavioral economics show that the subjective prospect value of money has diminishing sensitivity to losses/gains, represented by an S-shape, and this has been applied in representing the subjective prospect value of time in many transportation studies such as travel behavior modeling and network equilibrium. In this study, the authors demonstrate that the prospect value of time has an increasing sensitivity to losses/gains and can be represented by an Ϩ-shape, which contrasts that of money. The authors further explain the rationality of this surprising finding based on psychological and behavioral theories and discuss extensive practical implications. The correlations between sensitivities to gains and losses in terms of magnitude are revealed as well to shed light on potential underlying correlated behavioral principles. Substantial loss-aversion features are observed in the empirical analysis, supporting endowment effects. Implications of the findings on decision-making and other areas that utilize time as a key indicator have been discussed. The findings may revolutionize many research areas that utilize time as a key indicator such as transportation engineering.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 17 Feb 2022 15:16:07 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1910818</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>A multiple discrete continuous model of time use that accommodates non-additively separable utility functions along with time and monetary budget constraints</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1760852</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper proposes a multiple discrete continuous (MDC) choice modelling framework with the following features for analyzing individuals’ time use decisions: (a) accommodates non-additively separable (NAS) utility functions with respect to time allocation across different non-work activities, (b) considers both time and money constraints by integrating the two constraints into a single economic constraint, and (c) allows corner solutions for (i.e., non-participation in) discretionary, non-work activities. The proposed framework is applied to analyze weekly time use of employed individuals in Netherlands using a data set derived from the Time use and Consumption survey of the Longitudinal Internet Studies for the Social Sciences (LISS) panel. The empirical results of the proposed model are compared to those from two simpler models – (a) a model that ignores the monetary budget constraint but employs the NAS utility function and (b) a model that considers both time and money budget constraints but uses a simpler, additively separable utility function. The results suggest that considering both time and money constraints, when combined with the NAS utility function, facilitates in capturing rich substitution patterns in time allocation to non-work activities, in addition to revealing demographic heterogeneity in satiation effects. Further, the proposed model offers a superior goodness of fit when compared to that from the simpler models that ignore either the monetary constraint or the NAS utility function. Finally, the model results provide important policy insights for reducing demographic inequities in time allocation among employed individuals.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 19 Feb 2021 17:32:48 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1760852</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Application of an incentive for bus drivers to achieve an improvement in the quality of service</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1749639</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Concession contracts of operating companies of the public transport system of Santiago, consider important fines if companies fail to comply with the operating plan, regularity and other operational variables included in those contracts. On the other hand, drivers receive a fixed payment with no pecuniary incentive related with their performance.The main objective of this paper is to analyze the application of a monetary incentive for bus drivers focused on increasing the number of passengers transported to test the existence of multitasking, specifically checking the behavior of drivers regarding bus speed. The authors conducted a field experiment with an operator of Transantiago and they used a difference in differences analysis to show that with the pecuniary incentive tested, drivers raised their transported passengers in 9% when riding in long bus routes. The authors found some evidence of multitasking associated with a decrease in speed of 3%. Thus, the authors' research provides suggestive evidence that inefficiencies may be occurring in the operation because of the lack of adequate incentives for drivers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 25 Nov 2020 10:11:01 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1749639</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Research on Effects of Cash Incentives on Consumer Self-Scheduling of Bike Sharing Based on the Extended Theory of Planned Behavior</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1728500</link>
      <description><![CDATA[To overcome this problem of insufficient bike-sharing supply in certain areas, bike-sharing companies encourage users in such areas to self-schedule with cash incentives. This study explores user acceptance of and sensitivity to cash incentives. A questionnaire survey on cash incentives sensitivity of bicycle-sharing users was conducted at Shandong Jianzhu University; 520 valid responses were collected. Based on extended theory of planned behavior (TPB) modeling and structural equation modeling (SEM), users’ sensitivity to different cash incentive strategies in different cycling environments was measured under five factors: social norms, affordability, perceived green value, physical strength, and perceived service; five related assumptions were also set. Results show that affordability and physical strength are the most significant factors in users’ acceptance of self-scheduling, and greater cash incentives increase sensitivity to bike-sharing. The conclusions help the bike-sharing companies optimize business strategies, reduce operating costs, and improve user satisfaction and vehicle utilization rate.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 25 Sep 2020 17:31:43 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1728500</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A critical appraisal of the use of simple time-money trade-offs for appraisal value of travel time measures</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1719237</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Stated choice surveys have established themselves as the preferred approach for value of travel time elicitation with the help of choice models. However, major differences exist in the approach used across regions and contexts. In Europe (particularly Northern Europe), value of travel time is often estimated in large national studies, which continue to rely extensively on simple time-money trade-offs. On the other hand, studies in Australia and South America in particular tend to have a more local focus and follow the notion that more complex setups are preferable. The European studies however are also those where the results are actually used in cost–benefit analysis and data from European studies have formed a testbed for many advanced model specifications. The present paper aims to provide a critical appraisal of the use of simple time-money trade-offs, drawing from our experience in recent European studies. We highlight a number of issues, in terms of differences in valuations across formats as well as a lack of clarity on how respondents actually interpret travel time in these simple time-money trade-offs.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 30 Jul 2020 15:51:14 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1719237</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>App-based feedback on safety to novice drivers: Learning and monetary incentives</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1705884</link>
      <description><![CDATA[An over-proportionally large number of car crashes is caused by novice drivers. In a field experiment, the authors investigated whether and how car drivers who had recently obtained their driving license reacted to app-based feedback on their safety-relevant driving behavior (speeding, phone usage, cornering, acceleration and braking). Participants went through a pre-measurement phase during which they did not receive app-based feedback but driving behavior was recorded, a treatment phase during which they received app-based feedback, and a post-measurement phase during which they did not receive app-based feedback but driving behavior was recorded. Before the start of the treatment phase, the authors randomly assigned participants to two possible treatment groups. In addition to receiving app-based feedback, the participants of one group received monetary incentives to improve their safety-relevant driving behavior, while the participants of the other group did not. At the beginning and at the end of experiment, each participant had to fill out a questionnaire to elicit socio-economic and attitudinal information.The authors conducted regression analyses to identify socio-economic, attitudinal, and driving-behavior-related variables that explain safety-relevant driving behavior during the pre-measurement phase and the self-chosen intensity of app usage during the treatment phase. For the main objective of the authors' study, they applied regression analyses to identify those variables that explain the potential effect of providing app-based feedback during the treatment phase on safety-relevant driving behavior. Last, the authors applied statistical tests of differences to identify self-selection and attrition biases in our field experiment. For a sample of 130 novice Austrian drivers, the authors found moderate improvements in safety-relevant driving skills due to app-based feedback. The improvements were more pronounced under the treatment with monetary incentives, and for participants choosing higher feedback intensities. Moreover, drivers who drove relatively safer before receiving app-based feedback used the app more intensely and, ceteris paribus, higher app use intensity led to improvements in safety-related driving skills. Last, the authors provide empirical evidence for both self-selection and attrition biases.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 18 Jun 2020 17:41:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1705884</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The Team Orienteering Problem with Overlaps: An Application in Cash Logistics</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1702348</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The team orienteering problem (TOP) aims at finding a set of routes subject to maximum route duration constraints that maximize the total collected profit from a set of customers. Motivated by a real-life automated teller machine cash replenishment problem that seeks for routes maximizing the number of bank account holders having access to cash withdrawal, the authors investigate a generalization of the TOP that they call the team orienteering problem with overlaps (TOPO). For this problem, the sum of individual profits may overestimate the real profit. The authors present exact solution methods based on column generation and a metaheuristic based on large neighborhood search to solve the TOPO. An extensive computational analysis shows that the proposed solution methods can efficiently solve synthetic and real-life TOPO instances. Moreover, the proposed methods are competitive with the best algorithms from the literature for the TOP. In particular, the exact methods can find the optimal solution of 371 of the 387 benchmark TOP instances, 33 of which are closed for the first time.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 10 Jun 2020 14:11:25 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1702348</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Relationships among Value-for-Money Drivers of Public–Private Partnership Infrastructure Projects</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1583685</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Value-for-money (VFM) drivers and their interrelationships have large impacts on increasing the VFM of public–private partnership (PPP) projects. However, very few studies have explored the potential interrelationships among VFM drivers. Using a questionnaire survey and structural equation modeling (SEM), the current study aims (1) to refine a VFM driver framework for PPP projects; and (2) to determine and verify the interrelationships among VFM drivers for PPP project implementation. This research has observed that the determinants of cost and effectiveness are provided for financial or performance sustainability. Moreover the better the overall cooperative environment, the better the participants’ capabilities and characteristics and the more effective the cooperation between the public and private sectors. Furthermore, the level of cooperation favorably influences cost and effectiveness directly. Finally, a stable macroeconomic condition has the most significant impact on the cooperative environment. The determined interrelationships among VFM drivers will contribute to the increased sustainability and successful delivery of PPP projects.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 20 Feb 2019 10:38:48 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1583685</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Ex-Post Value for Money Analysis of Public Private Partnerships in Freight Transportation Infrastructure</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1505059</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) have emerged as a project delivery option for transportation projects in the United States. This type of project delivery is a long term agreement between the public and private sectors for delivering a project or service traditionally provided solely by the public sector. Some reasons for implementing PPPs are their ability to lower life-cycle cost and to increase cost and schedule certainty. This is sometimes referred to as the ability to provide a better value for money, hence the use of value for money (VFM) analyses to compare the financial effects of PPP against those of traditional delivery. While VFM analysis is considered the best practice for selecting a PPP approach, the primary challenge in conducting the analysis is to validate the empirical results of these studies. Most previous studies investigated ex-ante results and not much attention has been given to what may be considered ex-post studies. This report presents a framework for ex-post VFM analysis. Processes, data requiremenst, and algorithms were developed to ensure that an ex-post assessment can be performed at various stages of PPP project development. A hypothetical project based on various real world PPPs is used as a case study to illustrate the method and procedure of ex-post VFM analysis framework.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Apr 2018 12:23:45 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1505059</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Development of a Transparent Framework for Pre-Procurement Evaluation of Public–Private Partnership Project Delivery Options</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1494516</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper reviews value for money (VfM) analyses conducted in the United States to gain an understanding of methods used in addressing key issues in VfM analyses. The paper shows that VfM analysis approaches are inconsistent. In many cases it is difficult to decipher the source of differences between delivery options. Discount rates are sometimes used in a way that reduces credibility of the results. The paper presents some ideas for how these key issues can be approached so that VfM analysis results are more credible, consistent, and transparent.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 23 Mar 2018 17:14:12 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1494516</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Evaluating highway public-private partnerships: Evidence from U.S. value for money studies</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1501482</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper examines the state of practice used in the value for money (VfM) analysis of highway projects in the United States. Based on direct contact with public transportation agencies and the search of project websites, seven VfM studies were selected for a comparative analysis. The paper finds that the choice of public sector comparator (PSC) model varied from one study to another, which is driven by agency experience. The risks transferred from employing the public-private partnership (P3) model are closely related to the choice of repayment schemes. Discount rates used in practice are similar across studies despite wide-ranging debates over appropriate rates in the literature. VfM studies show the advantages of agency municipal bonds are reduced when favorable borrowing rates are available to private partners. The paper lastly examines reasons why agencies chose not to deliver projects as P3s based on VfM studies.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 23 Feb 2018 16:40:18 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1501482</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Quantifying Mega-Project Value for Money: Design-Build Versus Public Private Partnership Delivery Methods</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1496149</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Public agencies must justify the decisions they make to their constituents by demonstrating each project delivery decision’s value for money (VfM). In the traditional low bid procurement VfM is assured to the public via free and open competition to obtain the best price. Public private partnership (P3) project delivery challenges the idea that value is totally defined by minimizing project capital cost and permits public agencies to extend the value calculus beyond construction completion to the development, design, operations and maintenance phases of a project. P3 also furnishes access to private financing, which decreases the burden to the taxpayer and serves to cover current public funding shortfalls. This study compares the VfM of a P3 mega-project in Pennsylvania to that of a comparable design-build (DB) mega-project in Missouri. The paper seeks to determine the change in VfM when private financing and post-construction maintenance are added to the equation. The paper finds that additional VfM is realized through P3 delivery due to being able to build the infrastructure earlier because of the availability of private financing. The paper also finds putting the concessionaire at risk for maintenance costs influenced the concessionaire to implement higher standard design criteria as measured by an increased bridge design life to minimize life cycle cost risk. The paper’s primary contribution is the development of an approach to quantify VfM using comparative value analysis.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 15 Feb 2018 16:36:10 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1496149</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Congestion tolling - dollars versus tokens: A comparative analysis</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1498169</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The case for some form of congestion tolling has long been made given the extent of traffic congestion in most urban transportation networks. However, there is little consensus on whether this tolling should be in the form of dollars (traditional congestion pricing schemes or price regulation) or in the form of tokens (credit based mobility schemes or quantity regulation). Although the comparison of price and quantity regulation has received significant attention in the economics community, the literature is relatively sparse in the context of transportation systems. The two systems differ not only in terms of transaction costs but also in their efficiency in dealing with demand and capacity shocks, frequent in road transport systems. This difference has been explored by economists in market contexts but the possible parallel in transport systems has largely been overlooked. This paper develops a methodology to compare the performance of price and quantity instruments under uncertainty using a simple transportation network consisting of parallel highway routes and a public transport alternative. Tolls (in dollars or tokens) are differentiated across roads and the permits or tokens can be traded across roads at fixed rates. The demand for each route is determined by a logit mixture model and the supply consists of static congestion. The comparison is based on the optimum social welfare which is computed for each instrument by solving a non-convex optimization problem involving stochastic user equilibrium constraints. Equity considerations are also examined.  Numerical experiments across a wide range of demand/supply inputs lead the authors to the following insights. First, when the tolls in dollars and tokens can be fully adapted to demand and supply shocks (i.e. are day-to-day adaptive), both instruments are equivalent and attain the same optimum social welfare. Second, when the tolling system is not day-to-day adaptive and the supply of tokens is fixed, the quantity instrument performs better than the price instrument typically when the marginal external congestion function has a steeper slope than the demand function. Third, when the tolling system is non-adaptive, but the supply of tokens is day-to-day adaptive, the quantity instrument always outperforms the price instrument in terms of social welfare. Fourth, when the toll revenues and permits are distributed uniformly, this has a positive equity effect but the quantity instrument is more equitable than the price instrument. In view of these results, the authors argue the case for quantity control in the presence of uncertainty and strongly convex congestion costs.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 31 Jan 2018 10:51:08 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1498169</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Monetary and Prospective Benefit Assessment Method for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1491149</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Typical effectiveness research into Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) based on accident data covers the impact on injured or killed persons. While recent decades have seen a reduction in injuries, accidents with property damage continue to increase. Furthermore, in Germany, they have the highest economic cost. Due to the greater availability of systems that address property damage cases by avoiding or mitigating accidents, it is becoming increasingly interesting for manufacturers, insurers or customers to proactively evaluate the monetary effectiveness of these systems. Avoiding property damage accidents may result in a reduction of insurance premiums or repair costs for customers. This paper discusses a new method for benefit effectiveness evaluation in detail and investigates the most relevant property damage accidents for Germany: parking and maneuvering. Simulation results for an ADAS with fully-automated intervening functions and the hitherto-unknown collision speed distribution for parking and maneuvering accidents based on a naturalistic driving study (SHRP2) are analyzed. The proposal described here is focused on lower collision speed accidents, as property damage accidents are 40 times more frequent in Germany than those resulting in bodily injury. Due to the high claim frequency and expectancy of property damage accidents, various ADAS offer a potential to mitigate or avoid accidents. These benefits need to be evaluated as a prospective, representative and monetary effectiveness method. Thus, a bottom-up approach will be pursued in order to encourage the ADAS installation rate by highlighting its monetary benefit.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 18 Dec 2017 14:26:20 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1491149</guid>
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