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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <title>Assessing human reliability in life raft inspection and maintenance to improve onboard ship operational safety</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2607017</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Ensuring operational safety is of critical importance for the protection of human life in the maritime industry. One of the most crucial links in this safety chain is the proper execution of periodic maintenance and inspection of emergency equipment, such as life rafts. This study presents a hybrid methodology to assess Human Error Probabilities (HEPs) in life raft inspection and maintenance operations on board ships. The traditional Success Likelihood Index Method (SLIM) is integrated with improved Z-numbers to more effectively model the uncertainties and subjectivity inherent in expert judgments. Through Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA), the life raft maintenance process was decomposed into fifteen sub-tasks, and Performance Shaping Factors (PSFs) were identified for these tasks. HEP values for each sub-task were calculated based on the evaluations of a panel of nine maritime experts. The analysis results indicate that tasks such as “Log and close-out inspection in maintenance system” (HEP: 1.85E-02) and “Review service expiry dates and PSC remarks” (HEP: 8.21E-03) have the highest error probabilities. The findings of this study identify the weakest links in life raft maintenance operations, providing a concrete basis for measures in training, procedural improvements, and supervision. This methodology represents a significant step towards enhancing ship operational safety by enabling a more precise management of human-related risks in the maritime domain.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 27 Apr 2026 15:01:19 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2607017</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Analysis of the Aerodynamic Drag of Selected Pneumatic Life Rafts</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2624158</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The success of the Search and Rescue (SAR) operation is strongly influenced by the accurate determination of the search area for the drifting pneumatic life raft, with particular emphasis on leeway. The article refers to the issue of leeway of life raft. The leeway is directly dependent on the force of wind pressure acting on the above-water part of the life raft and the hydrodynamic drag acting on the underwater parts of the life raft. The paper presents a comparison of different types of pneumatic life rafts. The purpose of comparing the dimensions, shapes and windage areas of different life rafts is to demonstrate the relationship between the shape and the aerodynamic drag on the above-water part of the life rafts. Research has shown the dependence of aerodynamic drag on the shape and size of the above-water part of the life raft. The calculations presented in this study are based on the author’s previous experimental and numerical research and results published in earlier publications.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 10 Mar 2026 09:57:54 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2624158</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Developing a Lifesaving Device for Mass Rescue Operations</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2582582</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The International Maritime Organization defines a mass rescue operation (MRO) as a situation where a large number of people in distress need immediate help and the usual resources and capabilities available to search and rescue authorities are inadequate. To serve this need, the United States Coast Guard Research and Development Center has collaborated with the Department of Homeland Security to develop a nonstandard, one-time use, lightweight floating lifesaving device. The desired device differs from existing off-the-shelf Coast Guard and International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea-compliant products. It needs to be lighter, easily deployable by aircraft or vessels, and capable of accommodating at least 100 people for up to 24 hours. Phase I of the project included design concept, prototype development, and controlled environment testing. Phase II of the project, which is forthcoming, concerns final design and open-water testing. The results of Phase II will help the Coast Guard determine if these large-capacity, lightweight lifesaving devices are practical and beneficial as another tool Coast Guard responders can use during mass rescue events.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 01 Aug 2025 08:30:15 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2582582</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Numerical Prediction of Pneumatic Life Raft Performance</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2310049</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The success of the Search and Rescue (SAR) operation depends on the correct assignation of the search area for the drifting pneumatic life raft, with particular emphasis on leeway. The leeway is directly dependent on the hydrodynamic drag and wind pressure force acting on above-water and underwater parts of the life raft. The paper presents the numerical study on the pneumatic life raft performance including hydrodynamic and aerodynamic characteristics in a wide range of operational conditions. The numerical simulation results were compared with model test results obtained in towing tank and wind tunnel. The proper prediction of life raft performance is important for determination of life raft safety function dependent on wind velocity and operational characteristics. The results of numerical simulation are in line with data available in literature and obtained from empirical investigations.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 22 Dec 2023 08:46:58 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2310049</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Analysis of Inflatable Liferaft Layout Effectiveness Towards The Evacuation Process for Passenger Ships Based on IMO MSC.1/Circ. 1533</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2150896</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The inflatable liferaft layout applied to passenger ships for the effectiveness of the evacuation process must be based on IMO MSC.1/Circ. 1533 regulations with the maximum evacuation duration is n = 60 minutes. Based on the data from KNKT, in 2021, sea transportation became the biggest contributor to accidents with 342 people dying and missing. Liferaft is one of the main safety tool used during an emergency to save the people and leave the ship. This study used Thunderhead Pathfinder software which was Agent Based Evacuation Simulation combined with 3-D simulation results. The modeling was conducted with two types of layout liferaft and two scenarios of dangerous conditions, the first was a fire in the engine room and the second is the ship experiencing a 20° of heel. The results of this study indicate that there was a difference in the total evacuation duration between the existing layout and the layout that has been changed according to the writer's suggestion. In fire conditions there is a difference of 1 minute 18 seconds in case 1, 1 minute 16 seconds in case 2, 1 minute 38 seconds in case 3, and 22 seconds in case 4. In the heel condition there is a difference of 1 minute 19 seconds in case 1 and 1 minute 25 seconds in case 2. The results of the evacuation simulation modeling with the liferaft layout on the navigation deck that have been modified according to the writer’s suggestion in all cases are getting a value of n = 60 minutes and also have complied with the IMO MSC.1/Circ. 1533 regulations.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 25 Apr 2023 09:49:41 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2150896</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Predicting drift characteristics of life rafts: Case study of field experiments in the South China Sea</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2012541</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Every year, hundreds of people die at sea because of vessel and airplane accidents. As marine emergency evacuation equipment, life rafts are highly used in case of maritime accidents. Accurate predictions of drift trajectories and search and rescue (SAR) areas for life rafts at sea can enhance the efficiency and success rate of maritime SAR operations to save human lives. The objective of this study is to determine the drift characteristics of aviation and marine life rafts in the South China Sea, and develop an accurate drift prediction model. A series of maritime drift experiments were conducted in the South China Sea using the standard 6-person life raft (aviation life raft) and the standard 10-person life raft (marine life raft) to obtain 550 drift samples. This data was used to establish three drift models of life rafts: the AP98 leeway drift model, the dynamics drift model and the improved drift model. Finally, Lagrangian particle tracking method and Monte Carlo simulations were used to compare the drift models for 6-person and 10-person life raft. Results indicate that the probability of positive crosswind leeway (CWL) for 6-person and 10-person life raft is 61% and 31.4%, respectively. The jibing frequency is 2% per hour for 6-person and 4% per hour for 10-person life raft. The maximum divergence angle is 11.3° for 6-person and 20.5° for 10-person life raft, indicating that 10-person life raft is more sensitive to the wind speed in the crosswind direction. The improved drift model is more accurate than AP98 leeway drift model and dynamics drift model for predicting drift trajectories of both 6-person and 10-person life rafts. The results of this work may provide effective guidance for drift prediction of aviation life rafts and marine life rafts, which is of great significance for the maritime search and rescue (SAR) operations in the South China Sea.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 29 Aug 2022 11:33:19 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2012541</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Identification of Hazards during Search and Rescue Operations in Cold Climate</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1722351</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A search and rescue exercise simulating the evacuation from a cruise ship in Arctic conditions was carried out jointly between the Norwegian Coast Guard, academic institutions, and participants from the industry, in the north of Spitzbergen in April 2016. Reference for the exercise was the new Polar Code, which came into force in January 2017. This Code is functional, however, it prescribes that survival shall be ensured after 5 days in the evacuated craft. An important part of the exercise was an evaluation of the risks during the use of lifeboats and life rafts; the transfer to the rescue means, the stay in the lifeboats and life rafts and the rescue operation. The aim of this paper is to present the risks identified for these operations and, their mitigating measures. The focus is to present a review of risks during evacuation and rescue operations in cold climate, evaluate the findings from the exercise, and give a summary of gaps to be closed to meet the requirements of the Polar Code.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 29 Jul 2020 16:09:45 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1722351</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Thermodynamic Optimization of Liferaft Designed for Polar Regions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1721104</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The risk assessment conducted in the Polar Water Operation Manual (PWOM) defines the equipment required in the Personal Survival Kits (PSK) and Group Survival Kits (GSK) as the IMO Polar Code only mentions items that are to be considered (guideline). According to the requirements defined in the IMO Polar Code you are to be able to survive for a minimum of 5 days (or until being rescued). This means that the life raft participants are to be able to produce the amount of energy required to compensate for the heat loss for an extended period of time (minimum 5 days). For a time, span of 5 days it is not likely that an average person is able to produce more than about 150 Watts on an average. The cumulative energy produced by the participants in the raft is to compensate for the energy lost. The energy produced by the human body through metabolic processes is a complex study and will vary with age, weight, body surface area, fitness and physical activity level. This study assesses the metabolic rates required for survival utilizing different types of lifesaving appliances. The assessment is conducted utilizing a theoretical approach, applying the laws of thermodynamics and heat balance calculations. The study indicates that survival in cold climate is possible, when the correct equipment is utilized.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 15 Jul 2020 09:12:16 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1721104</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The Long Blue Line: Jackson’s battle with the rogue waves of ’44</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1653581</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Waves that exceed the stress rating of a ship are called "non-negotiable waves" or "rogue waves." During the Great Atlantic Hurricane of 1944 there were a few lucky survivors of the Coast Guard Cutter Jackson that experienced such rogue waves. By 10:00 a.m. on Thursday, September 14, 1944, winds were clocked at well over 100 miles per hour. The huge waves that eyewitnesses believed to be 100 feet high forced Jackson on a wild ride down their faces only to slam her into a wall of water at the base of the next monster wave. After one series of the rogue waves, the Jackson failed to right herself, filled with water, and disappeared into the hole between the behemoth waves. In the aftermath of the sinking, most but not all of the crew escaped the capsized cutter. Of those who managed to get to a raft, the seas ripped them from the flotation device every time it flipped over. Every time the raft toppled over, fewer men climbed back aboard, while others died of hypothermia and exposure. Of the 37 men who got into Jackson’s rafts, only 20 survived.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 01 Oct 2019 11:27:38 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1653581</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Factors Associated with Crewmember Survival of Cold Water Immersion Due to Commercial Fishing Vessel Sinkings in Alaska</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1488804</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Occupational fatality surveillance has identified that fishing vessel disasters, such as sinking and capsizing, continue to contribute to the most deaths among crewmembers in the US fishing industry. When a fishing vessel sinks at sea, crewmembers are at risk of immersion in water and subsequent drowning. This study examined survival factors for crewmembers following cold water immersion after the sinking of decked commercial fishing vessels in Alaskan waters during 2000–2014. Two immersion scenarios were considered separately: immersion for any length of time, and long-term immersion defined as immersion lasting over 30 min. Logistic regression was used to predict the odds of crewmember survival. Of the 617 crewmembers onboard 187 fishing vessels that sank in Alaska during 2000–2014, 557 (90.3%) survived and 60 died. For crewmembers immersed for any length of time, the significant adjusted predictors of survival were: entering a life-raft, sinking within three miles of shore, the sinking not being weather-related, and working as a deckhand. For crewmembers immersed for over 30 min, the significant adjusted predictors of survival were: wearing an immersion suit, entering a life-raft, working as a deckhand, and the sinking not being weather-related. The results of this analysis demonstrate that in situations where cold water immersion becomes inevitable, having access to well-maintained, serviceable lifesaving equipment and the knowledge and skills to use it properly are critical.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 05 Dec 2017 15:33:57 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1488804</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Innovative Liferaft</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1377817</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The paper presents the latest results of research carried out within R&D project on new solutions of liferaft construction.computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations of liferaft performance are presented.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 29 Dec 2015 09:51:14 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1377817</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>An Overview of Recent Projects to Study Thermal Protection in Liferafts, Lifeboats and Immersion Suits</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1335513</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In a marine evacuation, passengers may find themselves in lifeboats, life rafts or in the water. Survival is more challenging in cold regions and a person’s ability to survive until rescue depends on many factors, including the amount of protection the evacuees have against the cold, as well as the quality of breathing air in and lifeboats that are enclosed. Currently, international regulations do not provide specific thermal protection and ventilation performance criteria for lifeboats or. In addition, methods for approval testing of immersion suits have not been standardised and there is resistance in certain jurisdictions to the use of thermal manikins because regulating authorities are unsure of the correspondence between manikins and human. This paper provides an overview of several projects that have been completed and one ongoing by the Maritime and Arctic Survival Scientific and Engineering Research Team (MASSERT) to address the knowledge gaps in these areas. The results contribute relevant knowledge to close these gaps and are being used to advance international standards. They also show the value of using thermal manikins in combination with numerical models to predict the performance of lifesaving appliances when it is impractical or ethically unacceptable to conduct experiments with humans. The tools developed are being applied to create performance criteria and evaluate the performance of Arctic survival gear.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 23 Dec 2014 12:09:55 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1335513</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The Short Life and Tragic End of RMS Titanic</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1147902</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The harrowing trip and tremendous loss of life of the on the maiden voyage of the RMS Titanic is well known.  This article provides a look into the preparation for the trip, the construction of the ship, the availability of lifeboats, and the hours of the voyage until it's sinking.  It also describes regulations passed regarding vessel safety, communications, safety drills aboard the ship, and life boats, subsequent to the tragedy.  A number of factors are pointed out that might have made a difference to the fate of the Titanic and its occupants.  Firstly, the Titanic only had one day of sea trials and practice runs before her departure.  Secondly, a lifeboat drill had been scheduled on the third day of the trip, but the captain cancelled the drill.  Also, the crew was aware that they might encounter icebergs - they received at least six warnings to that effect - but they did not have the proper equipment to search for them.  There were no binoculars on board the ship.  Regarding lifeboats, the Welin davits on the Titanic had the capacity to hold 64 wooden lifeboats.  However, only 32 lifeboats were intended for the ship; and, in fact, the final number of wooden lifeboats aboard the ship was halved to 16 for its maiden voyage.  Instead of adding additional lifeboats, the head of the shipping line that ran the Titanic (White Star) made the decision to add more first class suites and cabins.  Four collapsible lifeboats were included, bringing the total of lifeboats on board to 20, with a total capacity of 1,178 people.  There were 2,224 passengers and crew aboard the ship. 710 of them survived; 1,514 people perished.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Aug 2012 08:50:19 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1147902</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Man the liferafts!</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1117977</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Marine safety equipment manufacturers are consolidating and at the same time looking for more innovative ways to meet customer requirements.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 03 Oct 2011 11:57:04 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1117977</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Enlarged Ship Concept Applied to a Fully Planing SAR Rigid Inflatable Lifeboat. Presented on the International Conference (5th) on Fast Sea Transportation, FAST '99, in Seattle, Washington on August 31-September 2, 1999</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/863381</link>
      <description><![CDATA[For a number of years now the Royal Dutch Lifeboat Institution (KNRM) satisfactorily utilize fast Rigid Inflatable Boats (RIB's) for Search and Rescue (SAR) purpose. These aluminum RIB's, fitted with a rubber tube, have a length of around 15m. and a displacement of about 14 tons. Two 500 kW main engines combined with a waterjet propulsion give these boats a calm water speed of 34 knots. These boats are 'All Weather' and have an endurance of 200 nm in calm water. However, good these vessel may be, the KNRM still wishes to improve their SAR RIBs. The actual speed that a rescue boat can maintain in seaway is dependent on the acceleration level felt by the crew on the bridge. The lower this acceleration level, the higher the operability of the boat. In order to decrease this level of acceleration, a new design for a SAR RIB for the KNRM was made using the Enlarged Ship Concept (ESC). This was accomplished in the following two steps: Firstly, computations were made to assess the expected resistance and ship motions advantage's using the non-linear program Fastship of the Delft Shiphydromechanics Laboratory. Secondly, model tests were made for a base boat of 14.4 m length and an enlarged version of 19.2 m.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 17 Jul 2008 09:25:19 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/863381</guid>
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