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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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      <title>Recent Improvements of the Long-Term Robustness of NOx Storage Catalysts Systems for Diesel Engines</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1084763</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The main focus of powertrain development is shifting gradually to the improvement of fuel economy and the reduction of CO2 emissions. Lean burn combustion approaches such as the diesel engine or stratified spray-guided gasoline direct injection technology are an important element in achieving those goals due to the good fuel economy associated with these engine concepts. A substantial success factor for both types of engines is the further improvement of innovative exhaust gas aftertreatment solutions able to convert nitrogen oxides, or NOx under oxidizing conditions. The NOx storage catalyst or lean NOx trap (LNT) has become the most widely adopted choice for engines with gasoline direct injection systems and also for the current diesel Bluetec systems from DaimlerChrysler. In the heavy duty sector, as well as for the introduction of heavy passenger vehicles for the BIN5 legislation in the USA, urea-SCR technology is already in use in series production or is being developed for series production. In this paper, requirements and trends for future NOx aftertreatment technologies are discussed. Ongoing development work focusing on improving the durability and sulfur resistance of LNT formulations will be presented and discussed in detail. For the covering abstract see ITRD E141518.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 22 Dec 2010 08:47:38 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1084763</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>HCCI COMBUSTION. ENGINE OPERATION AND EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/749147</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The potential and limitations of the Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) engine concept has been experimentally investigated. The operation range, in terms of usable air/fuel ratio and engine load, and the emission characteristics have been studied. An 1.6 litre single cylinder engine based on a heavy duty six cylinder Volvo, was used for the tests. The HCCI combustion process is very different compared to the Spark Ignition and Compression Ignition (Diesel) combustion processes. HCCI lacks normal flame propagation, instead the entire charge is gradually consumed in a non-flame mode almost at the same time. Due to its nature, HCCI has the potential to generate very low emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx). It is possible to operate the engine with almost zero NOx. The emissions of unburned hydrocarbons (HC) proved to be quite high, normally higher compared to Spark Ignition operation for a given engine load. The main source of unburned hydrocarbons are crevices, primary the piston topland crevice. Wall effects and bulk quenching proved to be less important. If the total crevice volume is minimized and the engines operated rich enough, say below lambda = 2.5, very low HC levels are obtained. HCCI combustion can be considered as smokeless when using high volatility fuels (light fuels like gasoline). With heavier fuels, like diesel fuel, smoke is very sensitive to the mixture preparation. The HCCI engine concept has superior potential for achieving high part load fuel conversion efficiency. This is due to the combination of small pumping losses, high compression ratio and short combustion period. The requirement of highly diluted mixtures limits the attainable engine load. With the present test engine the maximum IMEP was around 5 bar at unthrottled operation (naturally aspirated). However, by applying supercharging via an external air compressor, 16 bar of IMEP has been obtained. Besides the limited power density, the lack of direct ignition timing control is maybe the major disadvantage of the HCCI concept. A feedback signal from some sort of combustion sensor is necessary in order to control the ignition timing via an indirect method. Possible control strategies are through Variable Compression ratio (VCR), dual fuels or internal EGR. Turbulence and combustion chamber geometry proved to play an important role for HCCI combustion. Higher turbulence resulted in reduced heat release rate. (A)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 06 Oct 2004 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/749147</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>MODELLING THE EARLY STAGE OF SPARK IGNITION ENGINE COMBUSTION USING THE KIVA-3V CODE INCORPORATING AN IGNITION MODEL</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/683451</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The evolution of early stages of homogeneous mixture combustion in spark ignition (SI) engines represents a critical period that greatly affects the whole combustion process. A proper description of this critical phase represents a major issue, which could strongly influence the overall model predictive capability (i.e. model ability to reproduce the real engine behaviour for a large range of operating conditions without any major tuning). Such requirements become even more important for the simulation of last-generation gasoline direct injection or lean stratified engines, where ignition could determine the functionality of the engine itself. In this paper, after a detailed analysis of the ignition physical process and its modelling issues, the predictive capability of the KIVA-3V code has been improved by substituting the original ignition procedure with a more detailed kernel evolution model based on the one presented by Herweg and Maly in 1992. The ignition model introduced in a KIVA-3V version already modified by the authors (re-zoning algorithm, combustion and turbulence models, cylinder wall heat transfer, etc.) has then been tested in order to assess its level of accuracy in describing this complex phenomenon, by varying the most critical engine operating conditions and keeping combustion tuning parameters unchanged. After comparing ignition model results with the corresponding ones presented by Herweg and Maly, a specific application of the overall model (KIVA-3V + ignition model + turbulent combustion model) has been made to perform an analysis of a compressed natural gas (CNG) fuelled engine for heavy-duty applications. To this aim, the in-cylinder combustion history and the related processes as the temperature distribution and NOx formation have been calculated and verified with reference to the experimental data measured in a wide range of operating conditions of an IVECO turbocharged engine. (A)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 04 Dec 2003 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/683451</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A TALE OF TWO HYBRIDS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/651785</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article discusses the alternative designs of hybrid cars being developed by Honda and Fiat. Honda's petrol-electric hybrid has the more interesting design, and is now on sale, thus far ahead of its Italian competitor. Instead of having an electric motor running alongside the petrol engine, it has chosen an 'assist' system, Integrated Motor Assist (IMA), where a battery pack boosts the engine at convenient moments. The heart of the system is the light-weight engine, only 56kg, which was developed specifically for the IMA system. It uses sophisticated lean-burn technology, advances in catalytic converter design, lower friction, and weight reduction using aluminium, magnesium, and plastics. It combines Honda's latest VTEC technology with lean-burn operation giving excellent fuel economy at all speeds, low exhaust emissions, and substantially lower combustion times. The Honda Insight's engine is 10% more efficient than a current lean-burn engine and 25% more efficient than a conventional petrol engine. The Fiat Multipla hybrid has so far been shown only as a pre-production prototype, with no plans to bring it into series production. It has a standard 16-valve 1.6l Multipla engine and an AC asynchronous triple-phase electric motor linked to a Selespeed transmission unit. It uses 15 14.4V Ni-MH batteries weighing 280kg.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 11 Apr 2000 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/651785</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>LEAN BURN NATURAL GAS ENGINES AS A POSSIBLE POWER UNIT IN URBAN FLEETS OF HEAVY DUTY VEHICLES WITH LOW ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/542409</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This work aimed to examine the possibility of creating natural gas urban bus fleets by applying lean burn technology.  Different engine configurations were tested, keeping in consideration the necessity to ensure suitable performance, and to meet the European regulations. With the target torque and power, the severe European limits were not met only for methane emissions.  In addition, the GWI (global warming impact) values were also computed and compared with proposed limits expressly conceived for natural gas engines.  The results showed that the NG lean burn engine at the present state of development does not appear able to meet the future requirements of both low NOx emissions and GWI, because of the difficulty of resolving the trade-off between NOx and HC.  (A)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 25 Jan 1999 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/542409</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>URBAN AIR QUALITY IMPROVEMENT BY USING A CNG LEAN BURN ENGINE FOR CITY BUSES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/542410</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The use of compressed natural gas (CHG)-fuelled lean-burn city bus engines has a significant potential for air quality improvement in urban areas.  Particularly important is the reduction of NOx, as well as particulate and non-regulated HC-emissions.  For this reason, a CNG-fuelled, lean-burn, turbo-charged, intercooled engine equipped with catalytic converter was developed. The basic engine is a 6-cylinder, heavy duty, serial production Hungarian diesel engine which complies with Euro-2 emissions limits.  The objective of this development was to meet European emission limits forecast for the year 2005 (NOx less than 3.0 g/kWh CO and HC less than 0.6 g/kWh). Furthermore, it was necessary to fulfil the heavy-duty requirements regarding performance behaviour, driveability and reliability.  To achieve these requirements, a careful optimization of the main control parameters was carried out.  On the basis of test bench results, low emissions and favourable fuel consumption capability of the engine are reported.  Based on the evaluation of economical feasibility, the costs of CNG bus operation is additionally discussed.  It can be concluded that CNG city bus operation is - compared to diesel operation - a promising way to improve economically the local air quality.  (A)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 25 Jan 1999 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/542410</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>LPG PROPELLED BUSES IN THE CITY OF SUNDSVALL, SWEDEN</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/470301</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Tests were carried out on two Volvo buses operating in the city of Sundsvall, Sweden, to show how low the exhaust emissions, and how high accessibility, could be with engines optimised for LPG-operation. Lean Burn and stoichiometric optimisation were both tested, but the stoichiometric technique had to be eliminated due to excessive heat release. Both buses thereby became Lean Burn operated. The results showed a greater decrease than expected in NOX, HC and CO exhausts volumes. Carbon Dioxide exhaust was also reduced by over all 8% compared with diesel operation under identical conditions. Heat release has been a concern and a source of trouble, with both engines suffering breakdowns at first. However, the newer of the two buses operated without interruption for the last 12 months of the project during which time it was maybe the cleanest operating bus in the world, according to the ECE R49 test method.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 27 Feb 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/470301</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>PETROL INJECTION LEANING IN DIESEL'S DIRECTION</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/462458</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article first discusses various ways of attempting to reduce fuel consumption in diesel and petrol engines, then describes the remarkable Mitsubishi lean-burn engine for cars, which revives the old idea of direct injection (DI) for petrol engines. DI depends on: (1) high injection pressure, to turn oil into a fine spray; and (2) extensive turbulence in the upper cylinder, to help break up the fuel and mix it with the air. There has been a convincing case for lean-burn combustion, but, until recently, the three-way catalytic converter has ruled unchallenged. The Mitsubishi engine is a 1.8l four-cylinder unit with a double overhead camshaft. Instead of entering the combustion chamber from one side, its inlet tracts run downwards into one side of the chamber's roof. The electronically controlled injector is fired at part load later in the compression cycle, or at full throttle much earlier, during the intake stroke. The engine's claimed advantages include: (1) ability to burn lean normally, but provide 'fat' power when it is required; (2) up to 25% fuel savings; (3) about 7% better mpg; (4) up to 85% more peak power; (5) 12% more peak torque; (6) 10dB less noise emission; (7) no particulate emission; (8) 8% less weight; (9) 50% better power-to-weight ratio; and (10) 40% lower manufacturing cost.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 28 Jun 1996 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/462458</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINE DESIGN AND RESEARCH</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/458016</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The design of future spark-ignited engines will be driven by three main factors: emission compliance, vehicle fuel efficiency and vehicle design. These three drivers present significant challenges to the engine designer and research engineer. Achieving an engine design which adequately meets the requirements for emission control, fuel efficiency and vehicle styling will require engineering compromises. These compromises will test the knowledge of the engine design team and it will be the most knowledgeable team that effectively optimizes the engine design to meet the vehicle requirements. This paper outlines the major research and design challenges that confront engineers and researchers who are striving for improved engine function. The paper is organized in four parts. An introductory section which presents the constraints and demands being placed on the engine system. This is followed by two sections devoted to emissions and fuel efficiency. The issue of styling friendly design is interwoven into the section on fuel efficiency and focuses on power density. Finally, the fourth section restates the major engine design issues required to meet the future emission and fuel efficiency constraints and recommends areas for future research.  (A) For the covering abstract see IRRD 874988.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 20 Mar 1996 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/458016</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>MAZDA ADVANCED LEAN BURN ENGINE WITH NEW THREE-WAY CATALYST</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/458017</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A lean burn engine with a new type of three-way catalyst was developed in order to enhance the potential fuel efficiency of lean mixture operation. A combination of engine modifications and catalyst development extended the lean operating region across engine load and speed with no deterioration in NOx emission levels. A swirl generating port with low flow-restriction characteristics was developed in order to enhance the torque range of lean operation and the in-cylinder mixture distribution was optimized to suppress NOx emissions in high load lean operation. The catalyst has a base support material of zeolite coated with active metals including platinum, iridium, and rhodium and can not only oxidize HC and CO but reduce NOx even in lean exhaust gas, in addition to having all conventional three-way catalyst functions such as the simultaneous conversion of HC, CO and NOx in stoichiometric exhaust gas. A vehicle equipped with the engine showed a 11.6% improvement of fuel economy in the Japanese 10-15 mode emission test compared with conventional engines operating at a stoichiometric mixture.  (A)  For the covering abstract see IRRD 874988.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 20 Mar 1996 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/458017</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS OF METHANOL FUEL IN A CONSTANT VOLUME CHAMBER</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/458059</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The experiment was performed by using the condenser discharge ignition device in a constant volume combustion chamber for high pressure, equivalent to the TDC of a spark ignition engine, which makes the forced turbulent field possible. The conclusions obtained under various initial pressures, initial temperatures, and turbulent conditions of the methanol-air mixture are as follows: As initial pressure, initial temperature of the mixture, and the ignition energy increase, the ignitability limit expands, but the lean ignitability limit decreases as turbulence intensity increases. Combustion duration is shorter in the case of the lower initial pressure, the higher initial temperature, equivalence ratio of 1.1-1.2, and even though turbulence intensity increases up to optimum value. Maximum combustion pressure increases in the turbulent ambience under the same mixture condition, only in the case each optimum turbulence intensity exists under every condition. As the turbulence intensity increases T10 proportion increases while the Tpr proportion decreases.  (A)  For the covering abstract see IRRD 875003.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 20 Mar 1996 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/458059</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>GASBUSS. CO-NORDIC NATURAL GAS BUS PROJECT. FINAL REPORT</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/405433</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The consortium "The Co-Nordic Natural Gas Bus Project" was formed to stage a development project whose goal was to investigate whether "significantly improved exhaust emissions" could be attained using natural gas or biogas as the motor fuel in city buses. The quantifying of these significant improvements was set a level comparable to emissions from a modern gasoline-driven passenger car equipped with a catalyst.  The requirements were set in accordance with US-FTP measuring methods g/k Wh.  In the technical sense, there are two methods which may be employed to reduce exhaust emissions: 1) Three- way catalyst technology (TWC), 2) Leanburn technology (L/B). Saab- Scania Company expressed interest in TWC technology, whereas Volvo Bus Corporation was more interested in the L/B technique.  Eight laboratories were contacted.  Ricardo (TWC) and SwRI (L/B) submitted the most credible bids, and were consequently selected.  One of the main reasons for choosing these was their ability to measure results in accordance with the FTP method.  Significantly improved exhaust emissions have been proven as follows: CO: 1.36; HC: 1.48; NOx; 2.46 ; particles: 0.02.  Engine adaptation information and expertise obtained during the course of the project have been transferred to manufacturers and research institutes in the Nordic countries. Originally, the consortium planned to drive the project so that manufacturers would want to assume control of continued engine development sometime in 1993-94.  The manufacturers, however, assumed this role as early as 1991, and the original introductory small-scale tests planned for 1991 may now be staged with more commercial, realistic objectives in mind.  The exhibited potentials, taken from an exhaust emissions/energy efficiency point of view, provide the incentive to continue engine development/research, to demonstrate these low emissions levels in practical operations.  (A)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 09 Sep 1994 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/405433</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>LEAN BURN ENGINES FOR LOW EXHAUST EMISSIONS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/389288</link>
      <description><![CDATA[BL Technology has carried out a long term investigation into the development of lean burn gasoline engines with the object of meeting future emission standards at minimum cost and with best vehicle performance and fuel economy.  To date the 4V engine appears to give the best lean burn performance and the use of such an engine in a low emission vehicle concept is described in this paper. (A) For the covering abstract see IRRD 860841.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 18 Apr 1994 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/389288</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>CARS RUN CLEANER WITH RING OF FIRE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/389465</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This short article describes an inexpensive kit which can make a car cleaner and more fuel efficient.  The system is a combination of an improved spark plug and ignition system invented by Michael Ward and his company.  Combustion Electromagnetics, and a second component, produced by Lean Burn Associates, which recirculates some exhaust gases into the air intake, thus reducing emissions of oxides of nitrogen.  The improvement in engine performance is produced by a more powerful spark plug which helps the lean mixture to start off burning by pumping in more energy (several hundred watts rather than tens of hundreds). Ward's tungsten nickel and iron alloy plug has a ring shaped cavity at the end which is designed so that when a series of spark pulses are fed into it, the sparks propagate round the ring igniting the fuel on a broad circular front.  The plug creates a large enough kernel of flame for the combustion to become self propagating. The exhaust dilution system developed by Lean Burn Associates uses an electrically controlled valve to divert varying amounts of exhaust gas into the air intake according to a "dilution equation".  More exhaust is needed when the engine is under heavy load, less under a light load.  This "lean burn" engine has been assembled in a 1986 US Ford Escort with a 1.9 litre engine.  Emissions of nitrogen oxides were reduced to 0.09 grams per kilometre, and hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions were reduced to 35% and 70% respectively below the US emissions standard proposed for the year 2004.  The car was also 11 per cent more fuel efficient than a control car in city driving and 8% more efficient in motorway driving.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 18 Apr 1994 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/389465</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>AIR POLLUTION FROM ROAD TRANSPORT</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/376513</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article summarises the environmental effects on human health and the roadside environment caused by air pollutants from road traffic. The major pollutants are nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, lead, benzene and polyaromatic hydrocarbons.  Problems caused include respiratory problems, damage to vegetation, smoke deposits on buildings, acid rain, smog and lead deposits which enter the food chain via roadside vegetation.  The European Community and the World Health Organisation have both issued guidelines regarding acceptable values of these pollutants.  Technologies for reducing transport emissions are the high compression lean burn engines (which also reduce fuel consumption) or three-way catalytic converters which reduce thermal efficiency and so raise fuel consumption.  When used to capacity, public transport can be up to ten times more energy efficient than private cars.  Rail based systems are four times more efficient at transporting freight, and light rapid transit systems are electrically powered so do not directly pollute the atmosphere. Measures to restrict private cars, such as road pricing, higher taxes on petrol and preferential rates of tax on new cars with low emission rates, are consistently proposed.  The impact of road traffic pollution is particularly harmful since people and vehicles exist in close proximity.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 01 Jul 1993 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/376513</guid>
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