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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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    <item>
      <title>HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE IMPORTATION OF LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/64108</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Lists and discusses potential causes of accidental spills of liquefied natural gas and the hazards surrounding them.  It also describes methods of estimating the probability of major accidents.  Risk estimates are receiving increasing scrutiny as the demand for natural gas increases and plans proceed for importing large quantities from Alaska and foreign countries.  Handling large quantities of this highly volatile cryogenic substance will involve unique hazards of a nature and scope not previously encountered in the transport of other hazardous materials.  One of the major dangers: the liquefied gas, transported by ship, could spill in port or at sea, vaporize into a cold gas cloud, be carried inland by the wind, and ignite with tremendous explosive force and heat over a heavily populated area.  As knowledge of the rate of vaporization and the way the vapor cloud interacts with the atmosphere is needed to determine what to do in the event of a spill, the report suggests ways to develop better models for the fluid mechanics and heat transfer of a pool of LNG on water and for atmospheric dispersion of the vapor cloud.  To avoid serious accidents, at least until contradictions in safety data can be resolved and more can be told about the risks, the authors stress that it would only be prudent to locate all facilities for handling LNG at remote sites--not major port facilities, as is now anticipated.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 16 Feb 2003 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/64108</guid>
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      <title>MORE DETAIL ON THE HAZARDS OF LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS IN MARINE TRANSPORTATION</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/19637</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A discussion covers the trend to increasing traffic in LNG; the existence of hazards during the three basic operations of loading, transportation, and discharging of LNG at a marine terminal; safety measures for dealing with accidental gas releases; and the possible need for some form of ship operational control in certain ports to achieve the desired level of safety.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 15 Jul 2002 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/19637</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>THE ASSESSMENT OF COMBUSTION RELATED HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SPILLAGE OF LNG</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/391773</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In this paper an update is presented on the state of knowledge on gas dispersion, radiation from cloud fires and the effect of obstacles and confinement on flame propagation through gas clouds. Also reviewed is the recent work on thermal radiation from LNG pool fires. Another aspect considered in the paper concerns the implications of these advances in knowledge for the safety of LNG installations. In particular, the methods are discussed that are now available to assess the consequences of spillage in terms of the range and realism of the scenarios that can be handled, the accuracy and the ease of use.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 21 Jul 1994 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/391773</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>THE DISSEMINATION AND COMBUSTION OF UNCONFINED LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS CLOUDS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/161971</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A series of experimental tests were performed in the field to: (1) explosively disseminate liquefied natural gas (LNG) to form an unconfined cloud of measurable size and shape; (2) transfer a detonation wave from a different chemical cloud, but one known to support detonation, into an LNG cloud; and (3) observe and measure the effects of the transferred detonation wave in the unconfined LNG cloud. Based on the results of these feasibility tests, additional experiments are recommended.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 12 Mar 1981 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/161971</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TRANSPORTATION. 1970-JUNE, 1980 (CITATIONS FROM THE ENGINEEING INDEX DATA BASE)</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/161983</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Worldwide journal research is cited on transportation of hazardous chemicals, gases, and explosives.  The majority of studies concern liquified natural gas transportation. Tanker ships, containers, and pipelines for these materials are discussed.  Descriptions of accidents, spills, handling, loading, and equipment design are covered.  Mathematical models and simulations are included.  (This updated bibliography contains 263 citations, 25 of which are new additions to the previous edition.)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 12 Mar 1981 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/161983</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TRANSPORTATION: GENERAL STUDIES. 1964-JUNE, 1980. (CITATIONS FROM THE NTIS DATA BASE)</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/161984</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The transportation of explosives, rocket propellants, pesticides, chemical warfare agents, industrial chemicals, liquified natural gas, chlorine, and other hazardous materials are covered.  All means of transportation are described.  Accidents, injuries, explosions, and spills involving these materials are covered.  Material testing and safety equipment are discussed.  Economics and statistics of hazardous material transportation are included.  Radioactive wastes and materials are excluded.  (This updated bibliography contains 346 citations, 33 of which are new entries to the previous edition.)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 12 Mar 1981 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/161984</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE LNG OFFSHORE STRUCTURES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/168498</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Results of a preliminary numerical study on the response of reinforced and prestressed concrete slabs to simulated accidental Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) spillage conditions are presented and evaluated.  The slabs analyzed were designed to serve as secondary barriers in a gravity type offshore LNG storage facility.  Reinforced concrete one-way slabs with simple and continuous support conditions, and precast, simply supported, prestressed concrete slabs with concentric and eccentric straight tendon profiles are investigated.  Environmental effects considered represent sudden, well stirred LNG spills on the top of the slab, the selfweight of the slab and various heads of LNG.  The non-linear heat transfer and thermal stress analysis methods utilized are briefly reviewed emphasizing their assumptions and limitations.  Problems in formulating realistic mathematical models for materials during transition to cryogenic temperatures are discussed.  Analytical results are presented indicating that the initial surface cracks which developed in the simply supported members considered tend to close with time and that displacements generally stabilize.  However, axially restrained (continuous) members develop significant tensile membrane forces which adversely affect behavior.  Recommendations for future experimental and analytical research are offered.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 12 Mar 1981 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/168498</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>SAFETY ASPECTS OF LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/157221</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study evaluates the safety issues associated with the marine transportation, handling, and storage of LNG. The panel concluded that the first concern should be the prevention of an accident that would lead to a large, uncontrolled release of LNG in or near populated areas. This concern was addressed by reviewing the design principles of LNG transportation systems, the operational principles involved in the shipment of LNG, and other factors that might reasonably be expected to improve further the safety of the system.  The panel concluded that the second concern was the development of ways to mitigate the consequences of potentially hazardous LNG releases  in the event that, contrary to all expectations, measures to maintain tank integrity should fail.  Development of these methods requires an understanding of the underlying physical and chemical principles governing large LNG release, including spill dynamics, dispersion on water as well as on land, ignition, and resulting fire and blast effects.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 06 Feb 1981 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/157221</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>VAPOR CLOUD EXPLOSION STUDY</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/160449</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The study was divided into five phases: Phase I included an analytical evaluation of the possible magnitude and damage potential of a spill of LNG; Phase II consisted of shock tube tests and tests in thin film hemispheres to evaluate potential transition from deflagration to detonation in unconfined clouds of flammable gases; Phase III included a series of spills of LNG onto water to determine pool size, flame height, flame radiation, vapor dispersion, and flame speed through a vapor cloud; Phase IV consisted of a series of spills of LPG and gasoline onto water to provide direct comparison of the hazard potential of LNG, LPG, and gasoline; Phase V consisted of additional thin film hemisphere tests to determine whether a detonation initiated by a high explosive charge or a detonation exiting a tube could be sustained within an unconfined vapor cloud. Preliminary analysis of the data indicate that (1) transition from deflagration to detonation in unconfined vapor clouds does not appear to occur; (2) flame heights observed during LNG pool fires are taller than predicted; (3) LNG pool fires do not spread over the entire pool surface; (4) LNG is extremely difficult to detonate; (5) due to high flame speeds, fires on LPG pools tend to cover the entire pool surface; and (6) the emissive power of the flame in both LNG vapor and pool fires is higher than expected.  The results of this study will be used in updating the spill models contained within the USCG Chemical Hazards Response Information System (CHRIS) and the Population Vulnerability Model (PVM).  This study was partially funded by the Energy Research and Development Administration, The American Gas Association, The Office of Pipeline Safety Operations, and the U.S. Department of Energy.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 29 Nov 1980 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/160449</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>DEVELOPMENT OF FIRE PREVENTION MEASURES FOR LARGE LNG STORAGE INSTALLATIONS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/160430</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In storage installations where large qualities of LNG are present the application of the best practical means available is required in order to obtain the desired level of safety.  A central place in this is of course the design of the large quantities of liquefied gas, event escape of large quantities of liquiefied gas, even under the most adverse conditions.  In this way also the development of large combustible clouds can be avoided. To combat the affect of smaller escapes from pipelines and vessels detection, alarm and shutdown systems and sometimes impounding areas are required.  If, in spite of all efforts to limit the sizes of combustible clouds, liquid in the tanks and installations be safeguarded.  Carefully calculated tankspacing, sometimes combined with adequate water spray facilities are required to prevent escalation of an accident.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 19 Nov 1980 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/160430</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>NATURAL GAS: MARINE TRANSPORTATION. 1964-JUNE, 1980 (CITATIONS FROM THE NTIS DATA BASE)</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/155836</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Abstracts are presented of studies on various aspects of marine transportation of liquefied natural gas. This includes reports on forecasts, cargo tank design, terminal facilities, spills, safety aspects, special tanker design, and handling equipment. (This updated bibliography contains 143 citations, 8 of which are new entries to the previous edition.)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 27 Oct 1980 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/155836</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>DISPERSION OF VAPOR FROM LNG SPILLS -- SIMULATION IN A METEOROLOGICAL WIND TUNNEL OF SPILLS AT CHINA LAKE NAVAL WEAPONS CENTER, CALIFORNIA</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/151886</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In an effort to extend the ability to accurately predict the consequences of large-scale accidental releases of hazardous chemicals, spill tests of ever-increasing magnitude are being planned and conducted.  There is, however, a limit to the maximum size spill test which can feasibly be performed. Specifically, the prediction of vapor dispersion of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) resulting from an accidental release has prompted several large-scale field tests to be planned and conducted.  To aid the planning and extend the value of the data obtained in the Coast Guard Fall '78 spill series, wind tunnel simulation was performed.  Physical simulation of four, six cubic meter LNG spills was provided as part of the Coast Guard LNG Research Program within the overall Commercial Vessel Safety (CVS) Program.  The wind tunnel simulation test series provided field test planning information, extended the value of a limited set of field measurements, and validated the concept of physical modeling of LNG plume dispersion.  Used in conjunction with larger scale field tests, the physical modeling technique can potentially extend predictive capabilities beyond what can possibly be obtained from the largest full-scale field tests.  As a result of this effort, the U.S. Department of Energy is utilizing wind tunnel simulation with its large-scale field test program in LNG safety research.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 16 Sep 1980 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/151886</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>MONITORING OF LNG VAPORS - PHASE I</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/144175</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This report documents the development and subsequent field testing of two rapid response instruments for the detection of methane gas in the vapor resulting from an LNG spill. The instruments were: a laser instrument with a 0.005 second response time and 0.1% sensitivity, and a two-band differential radiometer (TBDR) with a 0.15 second response time and 1% sensitivity. A thermistor sensor was also developed for the rapid (0.2 second) measurement of vapor temperature. The implementation of this instrumentation for Spill Tests LNG-18, LNG-19, LNG-20 and LNG-21 at China Lake, California is also described in this report. Some comparisons were made between the JPL measurements and those of other organizations involved in the China Lake test program. Good correlation was found, for example, between the laser methane measurement and that of a nearby sensor during LNG-18. During LNG-21 the vapor temperature of methane was also measured and found to be linearly related to the methane concentration over the 2-10% range. In addition to the two methane concentration instruments, progress in the laboratory associated with this program was made on the development of a modified TBDR device to measure the concentration of oxygen in the vapor cloud, and in the development of infrared fiber-optics for advanced laser detection of methane and other species. (Author)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 31 Mar 1980 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/144175</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>EXPERIMENTS INVOLVING POOL AND VAPOR FIRES FROM SPILLS OF LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS ON WATER</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/143994</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A series of 16 tests have been conducted at the Naval Weapons Center involving the spill and ignition of liquefied natural gas (LNG) on water. Two kinds of fires have been studied; namely, pool fires and vapor cloud fires. The principal objective of the tests was to measure the thermal characteristics. The quantities of spilled LNG varied between 3 and 5.5 m to the third power with spill durations from 30 to 250 s. Thermal radiation from the fires was measured using wide-angle and narrow-angle radiometers and a spectrometer. The data from the tests have been analyzed for pool spread, liquid regression rate, flame heights, thermal radiative output and LNG fire spectra. Models useful for evaluating LNG fire hazards are indicated. Mean flame emissive power measured is about 210 kW/m to the second power and estimated flame temperature is 1500 K. CO2, H2O, and soot appear to be the principal radiating species. Vapor cloud burning was close to the ground with a propagating plume fire. The velocity of propagation was a function of the wind speed. A peculiar fire halting behavior noticed is discussed. (Author)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 11 Feb 1980 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/143994</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>LNG WATER VAPOUR EXPLOSION--ESTIMATE OF YIELDS AND PRESSURES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/92159</link>
      <description><![CDATA[It has been suggested that many of the vapour explosion incidents involving LNG and water can be explained by the superheat theory which predicts an explosive work yield of 88 MJ per tonne LNG and an explosion pressure of 22 bars. However, there are some events that cannot be explained by this model and a calculational method to estimate the maximum possible yield has been described.  This shows that, for situations where the LNG is the bulk liquid, a vapour explosion between LNG and water could yield 292 MJ per tonne LNG (402 MJ per tonne LNG if latent heat effects are included) with an explosion pressure of 46.5 bars.  Similar calculations for an LPG/water system, with a water temperature at which explosions have been observed, give a yield of 117 MJ per tonne LPG with an explosion pressure of 40 bars.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 28 Aug 1979 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/92159</guid>
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