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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
    <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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    <language>en-us</language>
    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
    <image>
      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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    <item>
      <title>Uncovering latent structures of crash typology in narcotic-involved fatal crashes for safe system interventions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2647545</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Narcotic-impaired driving increases the risk of fatal crashes, yet existing studies rarely provide narcotic-specific crash typologies that link driver impairment to roadway, traffic, and environmental conditions. This gap limits the design of Safe System interventions that can proactively address the most common high-risk configurations. Using Fatality Analysis Reporting System data from 2018 to 2022, this study applies Cramér’s V statistic for variable selection and Cluster Correspondence Analysis (CCA) to explore unsupervised crash typologies and latent patterns of narcotics-involved fatal crashes. CCA biplot coordinates group crashes into four clusters: high-speed lane changes on uncontrolled arterials, run-off-road impacts with rollovers, nighttime pedestrian or cyclist strikes on unlit roads, and moderate-speed angle crashes at signalized intersections. Results show that speed and lateral control failures dominate the first two clusters, narcotic-induced sensory and cognitive deficits under low visibility drive the third, and decision-making errors during turn phases characterize the fourth. Key factors such as posted speed limit, lighting condition, and driver age exert cluster-specific influences on incapacitating and fatal injury outcomes. These findings underscore the inadequacy of appropriate countermeasures and point to Safe System-aligned interventions, including dynamic speed management, enhanced roadside clear zones, targeted lighting upgrades, and intersection control strategies.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 06 Feb 2026 13:52:06 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2647545</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Prevalence Of Psychoactive Drugs in Injured Drivers Over 10 Years in Victoria, Australia</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2645535</link>
      <description><![CDATA[One thousand of the mandatory blood specimens taken from injured drivers attending a hospital over a decade were analyzed for a full range of legal and illegal drugs in an accredited forensic toxicology laboratory with confirmation by a validated LC-MS/MS procedure. Ethanol ( ≥0.05 gram/100mL), methamphetamine (≥0.01mg/L), THC (≥1ng/mL) were present in 13.6%, 12.7% and 11.5%, respectively with only minor variations over the decade. In contrast, the prevalence of ketamine, cocaine, fentanyl and new psychoactive substances (NPS) increased substantially over this period reaching 7.0%, 1.8%, 2.0% and 3.0% in the last 5 years of the study. A substantial proportion of drivers were also positive for opioids, antidepressants, and benzodiazepines, although some of these may have been given post-crash as part of their medical treatment. Overall, about 38% of drivers had a potentially impairing drug detected in their blood on presentation to hospital and at least one common illicit drug with or without ethanol were present in almost 23% of drivers. The presence of more than one common illicit drug (THC, methamphetamine, MDMA, cocaine, heroin), with or without ethanol, increased from 4.3% in the first 5 years to 5.8% in the last five years, which may reflect a higher crash risk for those drivers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 15 Jan 2026 14:31:02 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2645535</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Accessibility of methadone treatment via public transit for syringe services program participants in Miami-Dade County, Florida</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2590585</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Methadone is an opioid receptor agonist medication used in the treatment of opioid use disorder (OUD). Geographic distance to opioid treatment programs (OTPs) is a major barrier to treatment, given requirements for direct observation of dosing and periodic drug screens, and 'methadone treatment deserts' are defined as a public transit threshold of 30 min. The purpose of this study was to examine public transit access to methadone treatment for participants of a syringe services program (SSP) in Miami-Dade County, Florida. Public transit times were calculated using the R library r5r, which facilitates multi-modal transportation network routing. General Transit Feed Specification data was combined with street network data from OpenStreetMap for Miami-Dade County. Transit times were estimated from the population-weighted centroid of each zip code (n = 73) with participants of Miami's only SSP (n = 1549) to the nearest OTP (n = 4) using 24 departure windows aligned with OTP service hours. The mean one-way transit time from zip codes with SSP participants in Miami-Dade County to the nearest OTP was 79 min. Over 95 % of SSP participants in Miami-Dade County have a mean one-way transit time >30 min, classifying them as residing in 'methadone treatment deserts.' Likewise, 69 of the 73 (95 %) zip codes with SSP participants have a mean transit time to the closest OTP >30 min. Transit times differ substantially between zip codes with different numbers of SSP participants, but not between departure windows. Geographic isolation of methadone treatment from public transit routes represents a significant barrier to equitable OUD treatment.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 17 Sep 2025 10:55:41 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2590585</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The prevalence of benzodiazepines and other hypnotics and their impact on injury severity among older adults involved in motor vehicle collisions: A multicenter retrospective cohort study</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2573564</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Older adults are increasingly involved in motor vehicle collisions (MVCs). Hypnotics are known to impair driving ability. This study investigated the prevalence of hypnotics use among older adult drivers involved in MVCs and evaluated their impact on injury severity and co-prevalence with other central nervous system (CNS) depressants. This study analyzed prospectively collected data from older drivers (≥65 years) involved in MVCs from 2018 to 2023 across 17 Canadian emergency departments. Blood samples were tested for benzodiazepines, non-benzodiazepine hypnotics, alcohol, opioids, cannabis, stimulants, and other CNS depressants. Need for hospital admission was used as an indicator of severe injury. Statistical analyses included Chi-square tests to assess group differences and estimation of marginal relative risks via G-computation, adjusting for potential confounders. Among 1459 older drivers involved in collisions, 11.8% (n = 172) tested positive for hypnotics (hypnotic+). The most frequently detected agents in this group were non-benzodiazepine hypnotics (41.3%), followed by long-acting (33.7%), intermediate-acting (27.3%), and short-acting benzodiazepines (5.8%). Co-detections were also common in patients tested positive for hypnotics, particularly with antidepressants (40.1%), opioids (18.6%), antihistamines (10.5%), and antipsychotics (8.7%). Hypnotic + patients were more frequently aged 65–74 years (56.4%) and male (57.0%). There was no significant difference in risk of hospital admission between hypnotic+ and hypnotic- groups (50.0% vs. 45.8%, p = 0.59). The adjusted relative risk of admission was 1.01 [95% CI: 0.87, 1.17, p = 0.91]. Hypnotic use among older drivers involved in MVCs is prevalent and associated with polypharmacy. However, it was not associated with an increased risk of severe trauma among patients receiving ED treatment following MVCs.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 20 Aug 2025 11:57:17 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2573564</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>National Analysis of Motor Vehicle Collision-Associated Mortality Among Opioid Users From 2010 to 2020: The Need for Effective Prevention Policies</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2325230</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article reports on a study undertaken to evaluate geographic or demographic trends in the incidence of opioid-associated motor vehicle fatalities in the United States (US) from 2010 to 2020.  The authors conducted a retrospective repeated cross-sectional study utilizing the CDC WONDER Multiple Cause of Death Database, seeking data on opioid-associated motor vehicle fatalities.  During the study period (2010-2020), a total of 986 motor vehicle fatalities were documented due to opioid usage. The majority of these vehicle fatalities involved white, non-Hispanic, males between 25-34 years old.  The study showed that the southern US experienced the highest percent increase in opioid-related fatalities from 2010 to 2020 (263.1%), followed by the Midwest (160.7%), the west (86.3%), and the northeast (10.0%).  The authors call for augmented opioid-related policy concerning the potency and intake of prescription opioids with the goal to reduce motor vehicle fatalities associated with these drugs.  They also recommend state-specific analyses of narcotic access and usage patterns, including trends in arrests for driving while under the influence of opioids, to better understand the issue on a regional level.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 20 Mar 2024 10:11:36 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2325230</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Opioid Crisis and Transportation Investments in Tennessee</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2344457</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The opioid epidemic is a pressing public health issue in the United States and globally, and disparities in access to treatment for opioid use disorder (OUD) persist across the US. One of the key challenges identified in treatment is access to treatment facilities; thus, transportation is a critical component to improving the situation. In this project, the authors investigated the current needs and limitations with regard to treatment accessibility across the state of Tennessee given current transportation mechanisms in place and performed a case study evaluation of three communities to demonstrate travel for treatment for individuals across urban, suburban and rural areas. Based upon the needs assessment for the state and the case study analysis, options to improve accessibility for residents in Tennessee are presented. Additionally, a small set of interviews of staff at treatment facilities was conducted to provide additional context on the issues at hand. The methodology utilized publicly available data for transferability to other locations that are attempting to mitigate the opioid epidemic.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 29 Feb 2024 11:32:48 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2344457</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Trends in drivers testing positive for drugs of abuse in oral fluid from 2018 to 2021 in France</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2256419</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) is a risk factor for traffic accidents. The testing of oral fluid by roadside immunochromatography and laboratory-confirmed chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis to detect drug abuse has increased in France. The aim of this study was to describe the trends observed in drivers testing positive for illicit drugs in oral fluid and to investigate the concordance between the two analytical methods used. The authors received for confirmation 3051 oral fluid samples from drivers who had tested positive at the roadside with a Drugwipe-5S® device between 2018 and 2021 around Grenoble, France. Samples were collected with FLOQSwab® and analyzed by LC-MS/MS (THC, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA and MDA, MDEA, cocaine and benzoylecgonine, morphine and 6-monoacetylmorphine) at Grenoble Alpes University Hospital, France. Binomial logistic regression was performed to evaluate consumption trends. Most of the drivers were men (93.2%), with a median age of 26 years (range: 14–66 years). Cannabis (94.6%) cocaine (17.5%) and MDMA (2.5%) were the drugs most frequently detected. Poly-drug use was observed in 17.3% of drivers and involved cannabis and cocaine in 85.3% of these drivers. Poly-drug use was more frequent among drivers over the age of 32 years (OR, 3.48; 95% CI, 2.59–4.68; p ≤ .001), as was cocaine use (OR, 5.15; 95% CI, 3.75–7.08; p ≤ .001). The frequency of positive tests for amphetamines was higher in women than in men (OR, 2.53; 95% CI, 1.50–4.27; p ≤ .001). The positive predictive value of Drugwipe-5S was 98.2% for cannabis, 22.6% for amphetamines, 75.4% for cocaine and 17.3% for opiates. At least one discrepancy between Drugwipe-5S® and LC-MS/MS results was observed for 22.3% of the samples tested. The authors report recent trends for drivers testing positive for illicit drugs in oral fluid in France. Cannabis was the most prevalent drug of abuse identified, suggesting that a general prevention program might be useful. The results also highlight the need for LC-MS/MS confirmation when screening oral fluid for drugs of abuse.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 15 Nov 2023 09:19:57 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2256419</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Driving under the influence of zopiclone: Elimination between Two Consecutive Blood Samples</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2198116</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Zopiclone is a widely used hypnotic drug which is frequently detected in apprehended drivers. For assessments in forensic cases, the elimination half-life (t1/2) of a drug is sometimes important. A t1/2 of 3.5–6.5hours for zopiclone is previously reported in healthy individuals, but different factors like age and drug-interactions can affect the t1/2 of zopiclone. The aim of this study was to describe concentrations of zopiclone and co-ingestion of additional drugs in apprehended drivers, and to investigate the t1/2 of zopiclone based on two consecutive blood samples. Data was collected from apprehended drivers in Norway between 2003 and 2021. All cases where zopiclone was detected were included. In a subset of the material, two consecutive whole blood samples were collected ≥20 and <60minutes apart. Concentrations of zopiclone in blood were determined by LC-MS or UHPLC-MS/MS. The elimination and t1/2 of zopiclone was estimated from the concentration change of zopiclone and the time interval between the two consecutive blood samples, under the assumption of first order kinetics. The median concentration among all zopiclone positive cases was 0.044mg/L (IQR 0.070mg/L) (n = 2,401). The most frequent additional drugs detected were ethanol (36%), diazepam (22%), amphetamine (14%) and THC (14%). In zopiclone-only cases (n=364), the median concentration of zopiclone was 0.066mg/L (IQR 0.115mg/L). In 112 cases, two consecutive blood samples were collected. Of these, 28 cases showed increasing concentrations of zopiclone between the two sampling time points. Among the cases in which the concentration decreased (n = 84), the median C1 was 0.048mg/L (IQR 0.062mg/L) and the median C2 was 0.043mg/L (IQR 0.056mg/L). A Bayesian statistical model was used to obtain the posterior distribution of t1/2. The posterior median of t1/2 was estimated to 3.1hours (IQR=0.39hours) when including only the cases showing decreasing concentrations, and this increased to 3.8hours (IQR=0.52hours) when also including samples showing non outlying increase in concentrations. There was no statistically significant gender difference in the calculated half-lives (two-sided Mann-Whitney U test, p =.525). This study showed that zopiclone is frequently detected in apprehended drivers in supra therapeutic concentrations and poly drug cases. The elimination of zopiclone in blood from two consecutive blood samples indicated an apparent t1/2 of between 3.1 and 3.8hours, which is within the lower range of what previous experimental studies on healthy individuals have reported.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 21 Jul 2023 09:18:42 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2198116</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Risk of motor vehicle collisions after methadone use: A systematic review and meta-analysis</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2166490</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Methadone maintenance therapy is a leading treatment strategy for stabilizing and rehabilitating patients with opioid dependence; however, findings related to the risk of motor vehicle collisions after methadone use have been conflicting. In the present study, the authors compiled the available evidence on the risk of motor vehicle collisions after methadone use. The authors completed a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies identified on six databases. Two reviewers independently screened the identified epidemiological studies, extracted data, and used the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale to assess the quality of the studies. Risk ratios were retrieved for analysis, conducted using random-effects model. Sensitivity analyses, subgroup analyses, and tests for publication bias were conducted. Among 1446 identified relevant studies, a total of 7 epidemiological studies enrolling 33226142 participants met the inclusion criteria. Overall, study participants with methadone use had a higher risk of motor vehicle collisions than did those without methadone use (pooled relative risk 1.92, 95% CI 1.25-2.95; number needed to harm 11.3, 95% CI 5.3-41.6); the I2 statistic was 95.1%, indicating substantial heterogeneity. Subgroup analyses revealed that database type explained 95.36% of the between-study variance (p = 0.008). Egger's (p = 0.376) and Begg's (p = 0.293) tests revealed no evidence of publication bias. Sensitivity analyses indicated that the pooled results were robust. The present review revealed that methadone use is significantly associated with a nearly doubled risk of motor vehicle collisions. Therefore, clinicians should exercise caution in implementing methadone maintenance therapy for drivers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 26 May 2023 08:51:06 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2166490</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Gender differences in Driving Under the Influence of psychoactive drugs: Evidence mapping of real case studies and meta-analysis</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2035420</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Very few studies have examined predictors of DUI as a function of gender. This oversight is relevant, because analyzing gender differences prevents generalization of results observed in men, who still currently account for the majority of drivers worldwide, to women. The aim of this study is to analyze the prevalence of Driving under the influence (DUI) of drugs in men and women reported in real case studies published in the last two decades, and to assess gender differences in risky DUI behavior. PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science were searched for eligible studies in May 2021; a follow-up literature search was conducted in August 2021. Real-case studies of drivers convicted for driving under the influence (DUI) of psychoactive drugs with positive toxicological confirmatory analysis were included. The extracted outcome was the prevalence of positive findings of men and women for cocaine, cannabinoids, amphetamine-like drugs, opioids, and psychoactive prescription drugs. A meta-analysis of random effects estimates was performed to investigate the change in the size of the overall effect (by Cohen d standardized mean difference test). A Mann Whitney U test was performed to test for differences between genders. Of the 2,877 studies screened, 439 were retrieved in full-text and 26 were included. The meta-analysis showed a significant higher prevalence among men for cocaine (1.8% vs 0.9%; p<0.001), cannabinoids (3.5% vs 1.6%; p=<0.01) and amphetamine-like drugs (1.2% vs 0.6%; p<0.01). Surprisingly, no differences were observed in the use of opioids (2.3% vs 2.2%; p=0.45) and benzodiazepines/Z-drugs (2.9% vs 3.7%; p=0.52). Contrary to the extraordinary number of real-case studies reported in literature, only a few papers differentiate the prevalence of DUI between men and women. This can lead to an underestimation of the influence of gender in DUI phenomenon or complicate the evaluation of the results for some classes of substances, as observed for medications and opioids. The primary goal in the future will be to collect the data concerning DUI drivers following shared and homogeneous methodologies, in order to allow the analysis of data disaggregated by gender, which can be used for monitoring evolving trends and developing gender-specific targeted prevention and enforcement efforts.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 20 Oct 2022 10:32:48 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2035420</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A descriptive analysis of drivers under the influence of opioids in Kentucky</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2027559</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Despite the ongoing opioid epidemic and evidence of the increasing prevalence of driving under the influence of opioids, particularly in rural communities, there remains a limited understanding of those who drive under the influence of opioids. The current study aims to fill this gap in the literature by examining drivers under the influence of opioids (DUIOs) using the clinical substance use assessment records of a statewide sample of drivers convicted of driving under the influence (N = 15,917); first identifying differences between DUIOs and drivers under the influence of other, non-opioid substances, followed by an examination of factors associated with driving under the influence of opioids in combination with other substances, and finally, comparing rural and urban DUIOs (N = 1,571). Bivariate analyses were used to compare groups, while a logistic regression model was used to identify correlates of other substance involvement. DUIOs differed from drivers under the influence of other, non-opioid substances, such as being more likely to be convicted in a rural community (65.7% vs 53.6%) and to be under the influence of multiple substances at the time of arrest (42.0% vs 7.1%). Among DUIOs, a rural conviction (p =.016) and meeting DSM criteria for an alcohol (p <.001) and drug use disorder (p <.001) were positively associated with driving under the influence of opioids in combination with other substances. Results also highlighted a number of differences between rural and urban DUIOs, including other substance involvement. Urban DUIOs were more likely to report alcohol involvement in their DUI arrest (16.7% vs 9.1%), and rural DUIOs were more likely to report other, non-opioid drug involvement (36.9% vs 29.1%). Results suggest a possible need for different prevention and treatment approaches depending on rural/urban environment, which is noteworthy given limited treatment availability and other barriers to substance use treatment in rural communities.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 05 Oct 2022 14:02:40 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2027559</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Impact of Florida’s prescription drug monitoring program on drug- related fatal vehicle crashes: A difference-in-differences approach</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1930545</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article reports on a study that used a difference-in-differences (DID) approach to analyze a census-level database of fatal crashes in Florida, with the goal of evaluating the impact of Florida’s Prescription Drug Monitoring Program (PDMP, implemented in 2011) on prescription drug-related crashes.  The authors compared the findings in Florida with that of a neighboring state (Georgia) that did not have a PDMP during the study period, 2009-2013. The Florida data demonstrated a significant decline in drug-related vehicle crashes during the 22 months after the PDMP was implemented.  This translates to approximately two fewer prescribed opioid-related fatal crashes every month, when compared with Georgia.  For other prescription drugs (central nervous system depressants and stimulants) as well as cocaine and marijuana-related fata crashes, there were no robust, significant reductions after the PDMP was implemented. The authors note that data from this study are available in a public, open-access repository.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 26 Sep 2022 09:10:06 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1930545</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Incidence of Workers' Compensation Claims in Opioid-Using Truck Drivers</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1949486</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article reports on a study that examined the relationship between opioid use prevalence and subsequent filing of workers' compensation claims.  The authors conducted a retrospective cohort study, including data from 57,733 truck drivers covering the drivers' initial commercial driver medical exam (CDME), employment data, and workers' compensation claims data over a period of 7 years (2005-2012).  CDMEs are performed on both new commercial drivers as well as on those drivers renewing their Commercial Driver License. The study found that drivers who reported opioid use at their CDME visit (0.95%, n = 551 drivers) filed subsequent workers' compensation claims 1.81 times sooner than drivers who did not report opioid use at their CDME (99.05%, n = 57,182).  These findings held true after controlling for age, gender, BMI, and diastolic blood pressure.  The authors conclude with a brief discussion of how these findings could be used to improve regulations, to modify training programs for professional drivers, and to educate prescribers about increased risks of injury among opioid-using drivers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 21 Jun 2022 10:31:14 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1949486</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Drug consumption of suspected drug-influenced drivers in Hungary (2016-2018).</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1949091</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The hazard caused by driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) is determined by the time of consumption, dose and biological effects of a substance, as well as by synergistic drug interactions after multi-drug use. The aim of this work was to investigate the prevalence and pattern of psychoactive substance use of suspected DUID drivers and to present the advantages and disadvantages of the system currently used for determination of impairment in Hungary. Blood and urine samples, collected between 2016 and 2018, were taken from 2369 drivers with a positivity rate of 95% for at least one substance. Classical illicit drugs were detected in 76-87%, prescription medications in 9-15%, stimulant New Psychoactive Substances (sNPS) in 3-8%, and synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) in 20-22% of the positive samples. The most frequent substances according to substance groups were: classical illicit drugs: cannabis (n=1240), amphetamine and methamphetamine (AM/MA) (n=753), MDMA (n=196), and cocaine (n=180), medicines: alprazolam (n=188) and clonazepam (n=83), sNPS: N-ethyl-hexedrone (n=115), SCs: 5F-MDMB-PINACA (n=267), AMB-FUBINACA (n=92) and ADB-FUBINACA (n=90). The median age of classical illicit drugs users was 29 years, prescription medicine users were 33 years old, sNPS users were 28 years, and SC users were 26 years old. Compared to the previous two years, the authors found pronounced changes in the ratio of sNPS (14% decrease) and SC users (10% increase), and in the pattern of NPS consumption. The ratio of multi-drug use varied between 38 and 50%.69% of drivers tested positive were deemed impaired. Impairment was determined according to impairment limits (80-82%), multi-drug use (12-13%), and the result of medical investigation when a single active substance with no set impairment limit was detected in the blood (6-8%). The results of medical investigations may be uncertain due to the long time delay between arrest and clinical examination and to the structure of medical investigations created for determination of alcoholic impairment. In conclusion, a revision of the current medical investigation protocol is warranted to standardize clinical symptom scores that better correlate with driving impairment.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 06 Jun 2022 16:54:51 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1949091</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The incidence of psychoactive substances and alcohol among impaired drivers in Denmark in 2015–2019.</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1909114</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study examines the presence of psychoactive drugs and alcohol in blood from apprehended drivers driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) and alcohol in Denmark in a five-year period from 2015–2019.Data were analyzed with respect to gender, age, substances with concentrations above the Danish legal limit, arresting time of day and repeat arrest. By request of the police, the blood samples were subjected to analysis for alcohol and/or tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) alone, for “other drugs” (covering all drugs including new psychoactive substances (NPS), except THC, listed in the Danish list of narcotic drugs) or for both THC and other drugs. About the same number of alcohol traffic cases (37,960) and drug traffic cases (37,818) were submitted for analysis for the five-year period. The number of drug traffic cases per year increased from 5,660 cases in 2015 to 9,505 cases in 2019, while the number of alcohol traffic cases per year (average, 7,600) was unchanged. Ethanol (89.2%) was the overall most frequent single substance, followed by THC (68.2%). CNS stimulants (46.8%) were the second most prevalent group of non-alcoholic drugs. Cocaine (23.8%) and amphetamine (22.9%) were the most frequent CNS stimulants. The proportion of CNS-stimulant positive drivers more than doubled in ten years. Benzodiazepines/z-hypnotics (12.7%) were the third most prevalent drug group detected, with clonazepam (8%) as the most frequent drug. Opioids were above the legal limit in 9.8% of the cases. NPS was above the legal limit in 128 cases (0.6%). Poly-drug use occurred in 40% of the DUID cases in the requested groups: other drug or other drug/THC. Young males dominated the DUID cases (median age 26). Drink-drivers (median age 39) were also mainly men, but the age distribution was equally spread over the age groups. Re-arrest occurred more often in DUID drivers (18–29%) than in drinking drivers (6–12%). DUID was evenly spread over the week, while drink-driving was most frequent on weekends. This study is an important supplement to the knowledge of drug use in Denmark. It was the well-known psychoactive substances that were detected. Only a few NPS occurred. However, the abuse pattern has changed, and CNS stimulants now account for a much higher proportion than earlier. The results indicate a drug use problem among DUID drivers. This gives rise to concern because of a risk of traffic accidents. Treating the underlying abuse problem is therefore recommended, rather than focusing solely on prosecuting.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 29 Mar 2022 11:05:08 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1909114</guid>
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