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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <title>Effect of joint spacing and pavement thickness on concrete overlay performance</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1628166</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Concrete overlays provide cost-effective maintenance and rehabilitation strategies for pavement systems. A database has been developed in Iowa that records the historical performance of overlays based on records of International Roughness Index (IRI) and Pavement Condition Index (PCI) over a 20-year period. Based on these data concrete overlay service life has been modeled for various joint spacings. The data demonstrate that durability and service life can be improved. A review of PCI data indicates that improving construction quality to eliminate premature failure has the potential to add at least 10 years to the service life of PCC overlays. Even though concrete overlay technology is not a new concept, most of its design procedures still follow empirical methods, therefore this study applied AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design (Version 2.3.1) software to identify the effects of design para ms on concrete overlay service life. The theoretical insights provided by Pavement ME Design were compared with historical performance data and used to provide recommendations with respect to optimized joint spacing in overlay pavement structures. Comparison of the historical performance-related data with Pavement ME Design software results indicates that the Pavement ME Design software is conservative in predicting concrete overlay service life.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 14 Aug 2019 14:31:32 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1628166</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Effects of Concrete Stiffness on Mechanistic-Empirical Performance of Unbonded Jointed Plain Concrete Overlay</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1558636</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Rehabilitation of existing jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP) by using unbonded jointed plain concrete overlay is increasingly being used all over the United States. The design and performance of unbonded overlays is affected by various factors including climate, traffic volume, concrete material properties, existing pavement condition and future design life. Modulus of elasticity/stiffness of concrete is an important material property that has significant effects on the performance of concrete pavements and many researchers have acknowledged it. But there has not been much research on effects of elastic modulus on performance of unbonded overlays. This study focuses on the impact of variability of elastic modulus of concrete on the mechanistic-empirical performance predictions of unbonded JPCP overlays. Simulations were conducted using pavement ME design software with varying elastic modulus values and keeping all other design factors as constant. The results indicated that with decrease in elastic modulus values, the performance of unbonded JPCP overlay is adversely affected with increased transverse cracking. The adverse effects of lower elastic modulus can be compensated by increasing the thickness of overlay concrete slab or by decreasing the transverse joint spacing and obtaining improved overlay performance.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 12 Nov 2018 11:17:20 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1558636</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>A Long-Term Performance Evaluation of an Experimental Concrete Overlay</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1495436</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Flexible pavements are often rehabilitated by milling distressed asphalt and placing new asphalt at a thickness that accounts for expected traffic growth and pavement life. However, there are many reported benefits to concrete overlays as a method to rehabilitate and preserve distressed asphalt pavements. In 1988, the Florida Department of Transportation designed and constructed an unbonded concrete overlay on US-1 between Daytona Beach and Titusville. The 1.9-mile concrete overlay was part of a larger 8-mile milling and resurfacing of a deteriorated asphalt pavement. The concrete overlay test sections were divided into three groups based on design thicknesses of 6, 7, and 8 inches. Each of these groups included subsections with three joint spacing levels and two dowel bar configurations consisting of standard 12-inch spacing and wheel path only. The overlay sections are still in service with no major rehabilitation effort. The primary distress is pavement roughness found in sections with wheel path dowels only. The section with the most cracked slabs had joint spacings of 20 ft, which is no longer recommended. This paper documents the experimental program and presents the analysis and findings.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 13 Mar 2018 12:30:23 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1495436</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Thin Bonded Overlay Evaluation</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1374675</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In recent years, ultra-thin whitetopping (UTW) has evolved as a viable rehabilitation technique for deteriorated asphalt cement concrete (ACC) pavement. Numerous UTW projects have been constructed and tested, enabling researchers to identify key elements contributing to their successful performance. These elements include foundation support, the interface bonding condition, portland cement concrete (PCC) overlay thickness, synthetic fiber reinforcement usage, joint spacing, and joint sealing. The interface bonding condition is the most important of these elements. It enables the pavement to act as a composite structure, thus reducing tensile stresses and allowing an ultra-thin PCC overlay to perform as intended. Although the main factors affecting UTW performance have been identified in previous research, neither the impact that external variables have on the elements nor the element interaction have been thoroughly investigated. The objective of this research was to investigate the interface bonding condition between an ultra-thin PCC overlay and an ACC base over time, considering the previously mentioned variables. Laboratory testing and full scale field-testing were planned to accomplish the research objective. Laboratory testing involved monitoring interface strains in fabricated PCC/ACC composite test beams subjected to either static or dynamic flexural loading. Variables investigated included ACC surface preparation, PCC thickness, and synthetic fiber reinforcement usage. Field testing involved monitoring PCC/ACC interface strains and temperatures, falling weight deflectometer (FWD) deflection responses, direct shear strengths, and distresses on a 7.2 mile Iowa Department of Transportation (Iowa DOT) UTW project (HR-559). The project was located on Iowa Highway 21 between Iowa Highway 212 and U.S. Highway 6 in Iowa County, near Belle Plaine, Iowa. Variables investigated included ACC surface preparation, PCC thickness, synthetic fiber reinforcement usage, joint spacing, and joint sealing. This report documents the planning, equipment selection, and construction of the project built in 1994.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 14 Nov 2015 18:37:03 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1374675</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Iowa Ultra Thin Whitetopping at Two Years of Age</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1374674</link>
      <description><![CDATA[An 11.6 km research project was constructed in 1994 on a portion of Iowa Highway 21 in Iowa County, from U.S. 6 to Iowa Highway 212. This research is intended to evaluate the effect of four primary variables on long term performance of the portland cement concrete (PCC) overlay, commonly called whitetopping. The variables are thickness (50 mm, 100 mm, 150 mm, and 200 mm), joint spacing, fiber use (concrete with and without polypropylene fibers) and surface preparation (patch only, scarifying the surface, and cold-in-place recycling). After two years, only two sections exhibit a small amount of debonding and distress cracking. Both sections are 50 mm thick. Within each of these two sections, only 2% of the area is affected. Two other 50 mm thick sections have a small number of cracks but no debonding has been found. No adverse effects of these cracks are evident. Three asphalt overlay sections were also constructed. In each asphalt section, transverse cracks have recently been found. At two years of age, the research sections are performing very well. An insignificant number of cracks and no distressed areas have been found in any research sections thicker than 50 mm.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 14 Nov 2015 18:37:03 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1374674</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Performance Assessment of Wisconsin’s Whitetopping and Ultra-thin Whitetopping Projects</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1101712</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Whitetopping (WT) overlay is a concrete overlay on the prepared existing hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavement to improve both the structural and functional capability. It’s a relatively new rehabilitation technology for deteriorated HMA. If the slab thickness is less or equal to 4 in., it is referred to as ultra-thin whitetopping (UTW). The primary objectives of this study are to catalog the WT and UTW projects in Wisconsin, document pertinent design and construction elements, assess performance and estimate a service life of these projects. A comprehensive literature review was performed. A database of the WT and UTW projects was established covering 18 projects built from 1995 to 2007 in Wisconsin. The performance of these WT and UTW projects was assessed, by means of shear strength tests on field cores, falling weight deflectometer (FWD) tests on selected projects, and field distress survey on in-service projects. FWD backcalculation methods for WT and UTW pavements were studied and a Critical Distance Method was proposed and utilized for UTW pavement. Fatigue life was analyzed using 18kip, 22kip and 26kip single axle load level. Performance assessment was conducted using both Pavement Condition Index (PCI) and Pavement Distress Index (PDI). The performance of WT projects in Wisconsin was found comparable to that in other states. WT overlay thickness, joint spacing and pavement age were found to have significant effects on pavement performance.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 06 May 2011 16:34:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1101712</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Thirty-Year Performance Evaluation of Two-Layer Concrete Pavement System</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1091972</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In 1978, an experimental two-layer concrete pavement was opened to traffic on SR-45 near Fort Myers, Florida. The experimental pavement included a series of two-layer concrete pavement sections with various design features placed over either a granular or a cement-treated subbase. These sections consisted of a 3-in. (7.5-cm) portland cement concrete (PCC) surface over a 9-in. (23-cm) lean concrete (commonly referred to as econocrete) layer. The control section consisted of a standard PCC 9 in. (23 cm) thick with joints spaced at 20 ft (6 m) on a cement-treated subbase. After 30 years of service, the sections constructed over a granular base performed better than those placed over a cement-treated subbase. The distresses on the two-layer concrete pavement sections built on the granular subbase were minimal, regardless of their slab lengths. In contrast, the control section experienced greater cracking, greater corner deflections, and moderate-to-severe spalling. The findings validate several features of Florida’s current design policies, such as limiting joint spacing to 15 ft and prohibiting cement-treated subbases directly below concrete pavements. Furthermore, this project has demonstrated that a two-layer concrete system consisting of a relatively thin high-quality PCC surface over a lower-quality econocrete layer and a granular subbase can be a sustainable and long-lasting pavement design alternative.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 21 Mar 2011 14:13:32 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1091972</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Observations, Modeling, and Mitigation Related to Reflective Cracking on Composite Pavements in New York City</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/880356</link>
      <description><![CDATA[As part of a 7-year field study, experimental composite pavement sections incorporating several reflective crack control treatments were built and investigated in New York City (NYC). The primary objective of this study was to identify cost-effective materials and methods to minimize reflective cracks in NYC composite pavements. The as-constructed experiment included several reflective crack control strategies such as fabrics, membranes, composites, fiberglass laminates, and saw and seal crack control techniques. These strategies were repeated for 15- and 20-ft joint spacings in the base portland cement concrete (PCC) pavement. Control sections without any treatments were also built for each of the two PCC base joint spacings as baseline references. Evaluations in the form of 10 visual condition surveys, five falling weight deflectometer surveys, forensic coring, and materials testing were conducted over the life of the experiment. Performance was measured in terms of crack initiation, length, and severity as well as load transfer deterioration across the reflective cracks. The saw and seal crack control technique and short joint spacing, in that order, had the most effect on mitigating reflective cracking. The saw and seal technique offers a life extension of at least 18.5% and 34% for the 20- and 15-ft joint spacings, respectively, when compared with the NYC Department of Design and Construction (NYCDDC) standard reflective crack control measure—a nonwoven polypropylene fabric interlayer. On the basis of these findings, it is recommended that NYCDDC switch its standard reflective crack mitigation practice to saw and seal and abolish the practice of skewing transverse joints in the PCC base. A saw and seal specification was developed to help NYCDDC implement this recommendation. Additionally, the data from this research represent a unique body of work that can be used in mechanistic–empirical modeling of this important distress type.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 29 Jan 2009 09:31:24 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/880356</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Unbonded Concrete Overlay Demonstration Project on I-75 in Ogemaw
County – Construction Report</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/875367</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In 2003, the Michigan Department of Transportation constructed an unbonded concrete overlay with experimental features on northbound I-75 in Ogemaw County. The experimental features are: (1) 10 and 12 foot transverse joint spacing. Standard spacing is 14 to 16 feet for jointed plain concrete pavement depending on thickness. (2) No dowel bars at some of the transverse joints. (3) Transverse joints cut at 1/8” and left unsealed or ¼” and sealed with hot-pour rubber. Standard transverse joints are 7/16” wide and sealed with preformed neoprene rubber.(4) Longitudinal joints cut at 1/8” and left unsealed compared to the standard of ¼” and sealed with hot-pour rubber. (5) New, more open-graded HMA separator layer. The southbound direction was rubblized and then paved with HMA under a separate contract from the unbonded concrete overlay. Both projects went very well with the unbonded overlay taking 69 days from start to completion of paving for 12 lane-miles plus shoulders. The rubblize and HMA surfacing took 51 days from start to completion of paving for 8 lane-miles plus shoulders. Both projects will be monitored with visual evaluations, falling weight deflectometer testing, and ride quality measurements, for 15 years. Interim performance reports will be written at years 5 and 10, or as needed.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 29 Nov 2008 08:07:29 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/875367</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Factors Affecting Initial Roughness of Concrete Pavement</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/841839</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Past studies have shown that initial pavement roughness greatly affects future pavement roughness and roughness progression rate. Initial pavement roughness is also an important input to the roughness prediction model in mechanistic-empirical design guide. This study analyzed the design and construction factors affecting initial pavement roughness. Initial international roughness index of 90 concrete pavements constructed in Wisconsin from 2000 to 2004 were analyzed using multiple regression method. The factors considered in this study included concrete pavement slab thickness, project location, dowel bar placement, joint spacing, base type, and pavement length. The factors affecting initial pavement roughness were identified.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 18 Dec 2007 11:30:29 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/841839</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>AASHO Road Test Effect on Pavement Design and Evaluation After 50 Years</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/813827</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The AASHO Road Test construction and testing occurred from 1956 to 1961. Significant results from the Road Test still influence pavement design worldwide, including: Equivalent Single-Axle Loads (ESALs); the serviceability–performance concept; effects of layer thickness and strength; and effectiveness of dowels and joint spacing. The AASHO Road Test results are the basis for pavement design still widely applicable and currently used. It also changed the way that people conduct pavement research by illustrating the power of factorial experiments, high-quality data, and statistical analyses.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 30 Jul 2007 16:10:18 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/813827</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Evaluation of Feasibility of Using Composite Pavements in Florida by Means of HVS Testing</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/807118</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The main objectives of this research are (1) to develop analytical models for analysis of the behavior of whitetopping (WT) pavements, (2) to evaluate the potential performance of the WT pavement test sections for use under Florida conditions, and (3) to assess the applicability of WT techniques for rehabilitation of asphalt pavements in Florida.  A total of nine full-scale and instrumented WT test sections were constructed and tested using a Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS).  A 3-D finite element model was developed to analyze the behavior of the WT pavement test sections.  The model was verified and calibrated using the measured falling weight deflectometer (FWD) deflections and HVS load-induced strains from the test sections.  The model was then used to evaluate the potential performance of these test sections under a typical critical temperature-load condition in Florida.  Maximum stresses in the pavement were computed for the critical condition when a 24-kip single axle load (which is higher than the legal limit of 22 kips in Florida) was placed at the mid-edge of the slab (which is the most critical loading position) and when the temperature differential in the concrete slab was +20 deg F (which is a typical severe temperature condition in the summertime in Florida).  Based on the computed maximum stresses in the concrete, the expected numbers of repetitions of the 24-kip single axle loads at the critical thermal condition were computed for the nine test sections.  The results show that with a relatively thin asphalt concrete (AC) layer of 4.5 in. as typical for Florida conditions, a WT pavement with a 4-in. concrete layer can be used for low volume roads with heavy (24-kip single axle) loads.  The allowable traffic volume increases as the concrete slab thickness increases.  In order to be able to withstand the critical load without fear of fatigue failure (for an infinite number of critical load repetitions), a minimum slab thickness of 6 in. would be needed for a joint spacing of 4 ft, and a minimum slab thickness of 8 in. would be needed for a joint spacing of 6 ft.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 04 May 2007 16:35:54 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/807118</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Evaluation of Composite Pavement Unbonded Overlays: Phase III</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/794602</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In recent years, thin whitetopping has evolved as a viable rehabilitation technique for deteriorated asphalt cement concrete (ACC) pavements. Numerous projects have been constructed and tested, allowing researchers to identify the important elements contributing to the projects' successes. These elements include surface preparation, overlay thickness, synthetic fiber reinforcement usage, joint spacing, and joint sealing. Although the main factors affecting thin whitetopping performance have been identified by previous research, questions still existed as to the optimum design incorporating these variables. The objective of this research is to investigate the interaction between these variables over time. Laboratory testing and field testing were conducted to achieve the research objectives. Laboratory testing involved shear testing of the bond between the portland cement concrete (PCC) overlay and the ACC surface. Field testing involved falling weight deflectometer deflection responses, measurement of joint faulting and joint opening, and visual distress surveys on the 9.6-mile project. The project was located on Iowa Highway 13 extending north from the city of Manchester, Iowa, to Iowa Highway 3 in Delaware County. Variables investigated include ACC surface preparation, PCC thickness, slab size, synthetic fiber reinforcement usage, and joint spacing. This report documents the planning, construction, and performance of each variable in the time period from summer 2002 through spring 2006. The project has performed well with only minor distress identification since its construction.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 26 Dec 2006 12:45:04 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/794602</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Truck/Pavement/Economic Modeling and In-Situ Field Test Data Analysis Applications ― Volume 2: Verification and Validation of Finite Element Models for Rigid Pavement Using In-Situ Data ― Selection of Joint Spacing</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/787809</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This work is conducted to provide a complete verification and validation of four different finite element programs (ISLAB2000, JSLAB, EVREFE, and OU3D) for rigid pavement. The experimental data used in this process was collected from the Ohio SHRP Test Road (including four core sections with various geometry and pavement layers) and the Ohio University Accelerated Pavement Load Facility (three different loading conditions). The variety of the pavement sections and loading conditions makes this verification a complete and unique study. The verification outcomes are applied to optimize the joint spacing for least critical stresses within the pavement design life by using three concrete fatigue models (PCA, Huang, and Domenichini). The validation results show that the finite element models follow the general trend of the experimental data in strain, deflection, and vertical pressure. However, two issues are pointed out: stress reversals between the truck axle loads, and slab rocking. Experimental results show that moisture loss that occurred after placing concrete slabs produces a residual negative temperature gradient of -2.2ºF/inch (-0.48C°/cm). This leads to a permanent loss of support (LOS) under the pavement corners. Thus, positive gradient-based curling will only reduce the amount of LOS without eliminating it. When tested under different loading conditions, ISLAB2000 shows some inaccuracy in modeling the joints under combined traffic and environmental loadings. With the presence of built-in negative temperature gradient due to the curing of concrete, the critical tensile stresses are located at the top of the slab, and are maximized when the two truck axle loads are positioned on the two edges of the slab. This fact is confirmed experimentally; the slab cracks are observed to initiate at the top and develop towards the bottom of the pavement. The review of the three fatigue models shows that the level of tensile stress overcomes the frequency of load application. This is due to the tensile stresses resulting from the built-in negative temperature gradient. For the four pavement sections in the study, 13 ft (4.0 m) slabs had the longest design life.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 23 Aug 2006 16:06:20 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/787809</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Sensitivity Analysis of 2002 Design Guide Distress Prediction Models for Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/777152</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The AASHTO 2002 design guide was calibrated with Long-Term Pavement Performance sections scattered throughout the United States but with very few sections from the state of California. To understand the reasonableness of the model predictions for California conditions, a detailed sensitivity study was undertaken. The reasonableness of the model predictions was checked with a full factorial considering traffic volume, axle load distribution, climate zones, thickness, design features, portland cement concrete (PCC) strength, and unbound layers. Satellite sensitivity studies were performed to study the effects of surface absorptivity and coefficient of thermal expansion, which were not included in the primary sensitivity analysis. The findings are summarized from about 10,000 cases run with the software as part of this study. The cracking model was found to be sensitive to the coefficient of thermal expansion, surface absorptivity, joint spacing, shoulder type, PCC thickness, climate zone, and traffic volume. The faulting values are sensitive to dowels, shoulder type, climate zone, PCC thickness, and traffic volume. Although on average both the cracking and faulting models show trends that agree with prevailing knowledge in pavement engineering and California experience, in some cases results were counterintuitive. These cases include thinner sections performing better than thicker sections and asphalt shoulders performing better than tied and widened lanes. It was also found that the models fail to capture the effect of soil type and erodibility index and that the cracking model is sensitive to surface absorption.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 29 Jun 2006 07:42:40 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/777152</guid>
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