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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
    <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
    <atom:link href="https://trid.trb.org/Record/RSS?s=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" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml" />
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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    <item>
      <title>Effects of injector configurations on RCCI mode of combustion in a light-duty diesel engine</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2679094</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) is a promising low temperature combustion technique that reduces nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) and soot emissions simultaneously in diesel engines. This experimental study examines the impact of injector configurations on combustion, performance and emissions of a light-duty diesel engine using compressed natural gas (CNG)-diesel RCCI combustion. Injectors with six, seven and eight holes were tested across low load using a single injection strategy and intermediate loads with a double-injections strategy at 1500 and 2800 rpm, with a start of injection (SOI) sweep. The work aims to address key fundamental questions such as (a) how injector configurations affect combustion phasing, engine-out emissions and associated trade-offs, (b) how single and double injection strategies influence above mentioned outcomes; and (c) whether the performance be further improved while preserving the inherent advantage of low NOₓ and soot emissions in the RCCI strategy. The six-hole injector showed higher peak heat release rates at low loads, while the eight-hole injector showed higher peak heat release rates at intermediate loads. The six-hole injector exhibited the shortest ignition delay and advanced combustion phasing, with a longer combustion duration compared to the seven-hole and eight-hole injectors. The eight-hole injector had higher combustion efficiency at low loads but underperformed at intermediate loads. Carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons emissions were higher for the six-hole injector at low loads and for the eight-hole injector at intermediate loads. NOₓ and soot emissions were decreased with increase in injector hole numbers.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 11 Jun 2026 09:33:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2679094</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Influence of alternative fuel from waste plastic oil on the macroscopic spray parameters utilising a single injection strategy in a piezoelectric diesel injector</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2663669</link>
      <description><![CDATA[An alternative way to utilise waste plastics is to use waste plastic oil (WPO) in diesel engines. One way to explore the potential of WPO as an alternative fuel in diesel engines is by determining the spray macroscopic parameters. The present research will study the spray macroscopic characteristics utilising WPO and ultra-low sulphur diesel (ULSD) as the fuel baseline. To do so, the spray macroscopic parameters will be characterised in a constant volume chamber under non-evaporative and non-reactive conditions and using injection pressures (pᵣₐᵢₗ) of 80, 100 and 120 MPa and a back pressure (pb) of 5 MPa. Among the main results reached, it can be highlighted that the spray tip penetration, spray cone angle, and spray area values of WPO are lower than those of ULSD in all injection pressure levels at the same time intervals after the start of injection. Moreover, analysing all macroscopic spray parameters and under the operating conditions studied, it can be concluded that the mixing process of WPO is faster than ULSD. Thus, WPO shows potential as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. Lastly, the present research provides useful information that may be used to support simulations of the injection process using WPO.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 28 Apr 2026 17:06:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2663669</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Numerical study of the atomization performance of coaxial and porous injectors in rocket engine applications</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2647094</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The numerical study involved in comparing the atomization performance of coaxial and porous injectors using the coupled volume of fluid and discrete phase CFD model (coupled VOF-DPM). The study focuses on the primary atomization region of the injection. The investigation is done to study the effect of water-air mass flow ratios on droplet parameters such as droplet size (SMD), axial and radial velocity, and the number of droplets at different injection times. Pore-level simulations are performed to study the performance of the porous injectors. It is observed that increasing the water-air mass flow ratio in both types of injectors leads to an increase in droplet size. The results showed that the droplet size produced by the coaxial injector is larger than that of the porous injector. Moreover, the number of droplets produced by the coaxial injector is lower than that produced by the porous injector. The smaller droplet size and larger number of droplets indicate better atomization in the porous injector.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 30 Mar 2026 08:56:23 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2647094</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Nonlinear characteristics of fuel injection quantity for a high-pressure common rail fuel injector</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2647131</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Based on a validated AMESim simulation model of the high-pressure common rail injector, the nonlinear characteristics of the fuel injection quantity were investigated in this article. The nonlinear relationship between the fuel injection quantity and the fuel injection pulse width was described quantitatively through the definition of the fuel injection quantity nonlinearity (FIQN). D-optimal experimental design and partial least squares regression were employed to construct response surface models for the FIQN under varying rail pressures. Then the analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted based on these predictive models to determine the significance of all factors by evaluating whether their p-values were less than 0.05. Additionally, correlation analysis was performed to reveal the degree and trend of influence each factor has on the FIQN. The results indicate that, under identical working conditions, single-factor effects are more significant on the FIQN compared to the interaction factors. The interactions of parameters themselves contribute little to the FIQN. While some parameter interactions do influence the nonlinear characteristics of the fuel injection quantity, the leading interaction factors vary across different rail pressures. Specifically, at 60 MPa rail pressure, the correlation coefficient of the interaction between the inlet orifice diameter and outlet orifice diameter is 0.50, which is the only interaction factor strongly related to the FIQN. When the inlet orifice diameter is at a high level and the outlet orifice diameter is at a low level, the nonlinear relationship between the fuel injection quantity and injection pulse width can be significantly improved.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 27 Mar 2026 10:14:18 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2647131</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Multifactorial mechanisms of cavitation and spray atomization in diesel injector nozzles: A comprehensive review</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2647125</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Fueled by global environmental policies and energy transition initiatives, new energy vehicles are undergoing rapid development. However, internal combustion engines, particularly diesel-powered vehicles, continue to dominate the global automotive market. Owing to their high energy density and extended range, diesel engines are anticipated to remain critical, long-distance transportation, and industrial machinery for a long time to come. Therefore, optimizing diesel engine systems’ emission and combustion performance is crucial for enhancing energy efficiency and reducing global pollutant emissions. This review systematically examines the influence of nozzle geometry, operating conditions, and fuel properties on in-nozzle cavitation and near-field spray atomization in diesel injectors, culminating in proposed optimization strategies.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 27 Jan 2026 09:19:18 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2647125</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Thermal effects on the cavitation flow characteristics in the control valve for the diesel injector</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2612388</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The control valve is a critical actuator component of the diesel injector, and the fuel flow characteristics within its millimeter-scale microchannels directly determine the dynamic response of the injector. The fuel within the control valve is highly prone to cavitation, accompanied by intense transient thermal effects, which in turn influence the cavitation flow. In this paper, to reveal the coupling mechanisms between thermal effects and cavitation in the control valve, the modified turbulence and cavitation model incorporating thermal effects were proposed, and a three-dimensional simulation study of the fuel flow characteristics was conducted. The results show that the fuel temperature inside the ball valve chamber increases significantly and unevenly, with the highest temperature rise of up to 115 K occurring near the surface of the ball valve chamber. The cavitation within the ball valve chamber also exhibits an uneven distribution, and it is influenced by the temperature rise distribution. Thermal effects influence cavitation in two ways. On the one hand, the temperature rise reduces fuel density, creating a large density gradient between the surface of the ball valve chamber and the central flow region. This gradient generates strong vorticity, increasing dynamic pressure and reducing static pressure, which promotes cavitation. On the other hand, the temperature rise raises the critical cavitation pressure, making cavitation more likely to occur. On the surfaces of the ball and the ball seat, the changes in temperature rise and cavitation are influenced by both position and pressure difference.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 29 Dec 2025 09:37:23 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2612388</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Establishment and calibration of performance simulation model for hydrogen injector of fuel cell</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2598286</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In order to meet the demand of the PEMFC digital prototype for high-precision simulation models of its key components, based on the analysis of the structure and working principle of the hydrogen injector, the mathematical model of the hydrogen injector was established according to the continuity equation and energy equation of gas flow. On this basis, the one-dimensional performance simulation model of the hydrogen injector was developed using Python computer language; a test bench for nozzle injection characteristics was setup. Compressed air was used to replace hydrogen. The nozzle injection characteristics were tested under different inlet and outlet pressures, and the test data of nozzle gas mass flow were obtained; through the test data and nozzle gas flow model, the orifice flow coefficient was determined to be 0.89, and the one-dimensional performance simulation model of hydrogen injector was calibrated; the accuracy of the one-dimensional performance simulation model of hydrogen injector is verified through various working conditions, and the accuracy of the simulation data can reach 97%, which lays a foundation for the development of the digital prototype of PEMFC.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 21 Nov 2025 08:46:02 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2598286</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Thermal Efficiency Improvement for a High-compression-ratio HD Diesel Engine by Utilizing an Offset Orifice Nozzle</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2603808</link>
      <description><![CDATA[It has been necessary to investigate into combustion phenomena and fuel spray characteristics aiming to achieve thermal efficiency improved commercial heavy-duty diesel engines. This study focuses on the simultaneous improvement in cooling loss and indicated thermal efficiency by means of an offset orifice nozzle presented in the former study, and investigates further into combustion and emission characteristics of a high-compression-ratio heavy-duty diesel engine equipped with offset orifice nozzles. Internal nozzle flow analysis by numerical simulation and observation of fuel spray were also carried out to identify the cause of significantly different combustion phenomena.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 20 Nov 2025 17:07:20 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2603808</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Investigation of injection rate characteristics and applicability of palm-biodiesel blending ratios in various diesel injector nozzle geometries under simulated CI engine operating conditions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2583199</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Variations in fuel properties, particularly density and kinematic viscosity, and the disturbed fuel flow inside the nozzle tip significantly affect the accurate determination of injection rate (IR) profiles and injection timing, impacting on their critical association with the effective diesel combustion mechanism, consequently posing a major challenge to the application of biofuels in diesel engines. This study investigates the effects of palm-biodiesel blending ratios and nozzle hole diameters on IR characteristics, serving as a comparative basis with diesel (B0) under various injection pressures. Three single-hole injectors with different nozzle hole diameters (0.28, 0.30, and 0.35 mm) and four palm-biodiesel blends (B15, B30, B60, and B100) were tested across a wide pressure range (400–1600 bar). Experiments were performed under a constant injection quantity, allowing isolated analysis of kinematic viscosity effects on the IR characteristics of a solenoid common-rail injector, while disregarding the influence of fuel density. The results show that blends up to B60 produce IR profiles comparable to diesel, exhibiting slightly lower quasi-steady state IR and marginally longer injection delays. In contrast, a clearly distinct trend for 100 % palm-biodiesel is observed. Increasing the nozzle hole diameter from 0.28 mm to 0.30 mm (7.14 % increase) and to 0.35 mm (16.67 % increase) enhances the quasi-steady-state IR of B100 by approximately 20.3 % and 39.4 %, respectively, across the experimental injection pressure range. At injection pressures below 1200 bar, the discharge coefficient of palm-biodiesel blends up to 60 % differs minimally from diesel; however, a noticeable opposite trend emerges for B60 at higher pressures.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 12 Sep 2025 13:39:24 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2583199</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>In- and near- nozzle and external flow characterization in Gasoline Direct injection (GDi) engines – A review of latest technologies and trends. Part 1: Experimental background</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2566028</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In an era of increasingly stringent emissions regulations, environmental standards are driving gasoline engine research and development toward more widespread use of direct injection systems. It is also of interest to know what kind of phenomena cause these types of emissions in order to address and reduce them as much as possible. Therefore, it has been considered of interest to summarize in this article the latest research topics related to the gasoline direct injection (GDI) process, providing researchers with a valuable resource to understand the current state of research, the different technologies of gasoline direct injection and the phenomena that take place in this process. Research applied to GDI engines can be approached in several ways. The one chosen for this article is mainly based on separating the relevant processes within the engine with the objective of going deeper into each of them. In this sense, it is proposed to study the injection without taking into account the combustion phenomenon. In the same way, it is suggested to study the injection process in several phases: in- and near-field of the injector and downstream of the injector. Therefore, this work performs an extensive analysis of the experimental techniques employed for the study of each of the phenomena that take place in the injection process. The objective of the research is a better understanding of the phenomena, an improved characterization of the internal flow and spray and consequently the final optimization of the engine design. In a subsequent publication (Part 2), the same literature review will be addressed but only taking into account the computational work carried out in recent years with the same objective of investigating the injection, the mixture formation process, and the associated emissions characterization.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 25 Aug 2025 12:24:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2566028</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Gas jet structure effects on fuel concentrations and flames in a hydrogen low-pressure direct-injection spark-ignition engine</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2552344</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study aims to find the impact of the nozzle shape of a side-mounted, 3.5-MPa pintle injector on hydrogen concentration and flame development in a low-pressure direct-injection spark ignition (H2LPDI) engine. To this end, endoscopic high-speed imaging of gas jet laser shadowgraph and flames as well as spark-induced breakdown-spectroscopy (SIBS) method are applied to one of the inline four cylinders of H2LPDI engine. Two engines with endoscopic access are used: one motored engine for high-speed laser shadowgraph imaging of gas jet development and the other combustion engine for SIBS-based spark gap ? measurements and high-speed hydrogen flame imaging. The gas jet visualisation showed that a nozzle with a narrower jet spreading angle leads to more turbulent jet boundaries and the jet axis being directed more towards the piston. Due to higher axial momentum, the narrower spreading angle nozzle also caused enhanced jet penetration across the in-cylinder tumble flow. This jet development pattern resulted in locally leaner hydrogen mixtures near the centrally mounted spark plug at the time of ignition, evidenced by a higher difference between spark gap ? and global ?. As a result, the flame size was measured smaller at any fixed combustion stage. For both nozzle types, the injection timing was also varied between 150 and 120 °CA bTDC but there was no significant difference measured in spark gap ? and flame size compared to that associated with the nozzle type.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 17 Jun 2025 09:58:01 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2552344</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Investigation of the enhanced cavitation model considering turbulence effects of fuel flow in the injector nozzle holes</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2552341</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The cavitation model is essential in simulating cavitation flow characteristics of injector nozzles, with its accuracy directly impacting simulation precision. This paper developed a quantitative relationship between critical cavitation pressure, turbulent kinetic energy, and shear stress, and introduced a modified cavitation model that considers turbulence effects. A simulation study was conducted on the fuel flow characteristics inside the nozzle of a high-pressure common rail diesel injector with seven nozzle holes. The results indicate that compared to the original model, the cavitation development calculated by the modified model is enhanced at different injection pressures. In terms of axial distribution, cavitation inside the nozzle hole increases, but the impact on cavitation of different intensities varies, with the development of moderate to low-intensity cavitation being promoted, while strong cavitation is inhibited. In terms of radial distribution, the intensity of cavitation on the upper wall inside the nozzle hole increases, which is caused by the higher mass transfer rate near the upper wall at the nozzle hole inlet. As the injection pressure increases from 120 to 240?MPa, the change rate of cavitation volume ratio inside the nozzle holes calculated by the original and modified models increases from 5.1% to 9.7%. It is necessary to use the modified model for the calculations of gas/liquid two-phase flow within the nozzle hole, especially at high injection pressure.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 17 Jun 2025 09:58:01 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2552341</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Performance study of an innovative dual injection mode injector for marine low-speed dual-fuel engine</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2552335</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Marine low-speed dual-fuel engines typically have two sets of fuel injection system, main-injection and micro-injection. In order to make the fuel injection system of marine low-speed dual-fuel engine compact in structure and flexible in injection control, an innovative dual injection mode injector (DIMI) which can achieve both the functions of main-injection and micro-injection was proposed. The switching between main-injection and micro-injection mode of the injector is achieved through the collaborative control of dual solenoid valves. Based on the constructed AMESim model, the injection quantity characteristic and hydraulic efficiency of the DIMI were investigated under different working conditions and injection modes. The results show that, when the DIMI in main-injection mode achieves injection quantity characteristic similar to those of a traditional electronically controlled injector (TECI), the electromagnetic forces of solenoid valves of the DIMI are less required to 80% of that of the TECI, and the fuel return quantity and hydraulic efficiency of the DIMI are comparable to those of the TECI under the same working conditions. By changing the minimum limit height of the needle of the DIMI under micro-injection mode, different ranges of micro-injection quantity could be designed according to the requirements of the engine, and the control accuracy of injection pulse width (IPW) on micro-injection quantity is higher than on main-injection quantity. Both the hydraulic efficiency of the DIMI under main-injection and micro-injection mode increase with the rail pressure and IPW in the small IPW range, then gradually tend to be saturated with the increase of IPW. As the minimum limit height of the needle increases, the injection quantity and hydraulic efficiency of the DIMI under micro-injection mode increases overall, however, the saturation values of the hydraulic efficiency in micro-injection mode under different needle minimum limit heights are still smaller than those in main-injection mode.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 17 Jun 2025 09:58:01 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2552335</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Characterization of Dimethyl Ether (DME) Spray Using ECN Spray D Under Engine-Relevant Conditions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2539425</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This research experimentally investigates the spray vaporization of high-pressure dimethyl ether (DME) using a single-hole research injector focusing on nominal operating conditions from the Engine Combustion Network (ECN). DME is a synthetic alternative to diesel fuel, offering both high reactivity and potential reductions in particulate emissions. Because DME only features half of the energy density of diesel fuel, a specifically designed fuel system with a high mass flow rate to meet the energy delivery requirements is needed. The unique physical properties of DME, including higher vapor pressure and lower viscosity, introduce challenges like cavitation and unique evaporation characteristics that deviate from typical diesel fuel. These features are likely to lead to differences in fuel mixing and combustion. This study aims to provide detailed experimental data on DME spray characteristics under engine-like conditions, helping the development of predictive CFD models for optimal injector and combustion chamber design. High-pressure sprays injected via an ECN Spray D injector are analyzed using high-speed diffuse-back illumination extinction imaging (DBI-EI) to measure the liquid phase of the sprays and shadowgraphy imaging to measure the vapor penetration. DME injections show slower penetration when compared to more conventional liquid fuels, namely n-dodecane. This delayed injection might indicate cavitation and the role of an evacuated injector tip prior to injection. To confirm this aspect of the empty sac, the injection rate profile was investigated using the Musculus and Kattke jet model. Subsequently, the vapor-liquid equilibrium at the liquid length was analyzed, revealing the distinct mixing nature of DME. The measured DME liquid length on average extends 56% beyond the predicted vapor-liquid equilibrium distance. This research will provide comprehensive datasets on liquid/vapor mixing, which are crucial for developing reliable spray and combustion modeling tools.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 05 Jun 2025 11:59:53 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2539425</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Novel direct injection electro-hydraulic model-based controller for high efficiency internal combustion engines</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2518195</link>
      <description><![CDATA[During the past years, automotive industries developed several technologies suitable to increase efficiency and reduce emissions from Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs). Among them, the adoption of high-pressure injection systems is considered crucial to optimize air-fuel mixture formation. However, the use of these technologies also promotes the formation of particulate matter (PM Particulate Matter), which is a direct result of charge stratification and fluid film on the cylinder walls. Therefore, to obtain a proper mixture formation without the risk of wall impingement, the utilization of consecutive injections is mandatory. Since modern Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) systems are typically characterized by electrical-actuated injectors connected to a single high-pressure rail, a deep understanding of electrical and hydraulic effects among two close injection events becomes essential. This paper analyzes the combinations of electrical and hydraulic effects that occur in a high-pressure GDI system performing multiple injections. By using a specifically developed open vessel flushing bench, the injection system has been characterized in terms of pressure wave propagation as well as electrical distortions of the driving current profile of the injectors. The analysis of the experimental data has allowed for the calibration of the residual magnetization characteristic map in addition to the development of a pressure wave propagation control-oriented model. Finally, a Magnetization and Pressure Wave (MPW) correction strategy, easily implementable on an Electronic Control Unit (ECU) without the need for additional sensors, has been proposed. By running the MPW strategy, the error between the actual and expected injected mass has been reduced below 5% in all tested conditions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 23 May 2025 15:34:42 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2518195</guid>
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