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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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      <title>Tax and Fee Payments by Motor Vehicle Users for the Use of Highways, Fuels, and Vehicles. Report #17 in the Series: The Annualized Social Cost of Motor-Vehicle Use in the United States, based on 1990-1991 Data</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2628285</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The objective of this report is to establish a reasonable framework for estimating motor-vehicle-user payments towards government-provided motor-vehicle infrastructure and service (MVIS), and then to estimate those payments and compare them with government expenditures. (Government expenditures towards MVIS are estimated in Report #7 and incorporated here for comparison with user payments.) First, I argue that the purpose of estimating tax and fee payments by motor-vehicle users is to determine whether users pay governments a “fair” amount. I thus emphasize at the outset that the debate is primarily about equity, not directly about economic efficiency. I show that a simple comparison of current tax and fee payments – however defined – with current motor-vehicle-related costs (however defined) tells us little about optimal pricing, optimal revenues, optimal expenditures, or optimal use of public or private transportation resources. Next, I classify the various taxes and fees that one might count as user payments according to the breadth (or “targetedness”) and disposition of the taxes and fees. The breadth or targetedness of the taxes concerns whether the taxes and fees apply only to motor-vehicle use, or to all commodities and services, or to something in between. The disposition of the taxes or fees concerns whether or not they are dedicated to government MVIS. With these considerations, I establish five classes of user payments (A1, A2, B, C1, and C2). I then present four ways one might tally up user payments (and government expenditures), the differences (on the payment side) owing ultimately to different notions about how taxes and fees ought to be related to actual motor-vehicle use in order to “count” as a user-payment towards government MVIS. These four “Ways of Counting” user payments treat the five different classes of taxes and fees differently. After further discussing the conceptual framework outlined above, I make detailed estimates of all tax and fee payments to all levels of government in the U. S. in a base year of 1991.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 31 Jan 2026 16:28:50 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2628285</guid>
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      <title>Manufacturer encroachment in car per-use rental: The role of partial integration of supply chain</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2604647</link>
      <description><![CDATA[An innovative non-ownership business model, per-use rental, has emerged, in which consumers use products through renting and pay based on usage frequency. Although existing literature examines manufacturer encroachment in decentralized supply chains, recent practices demonstrate increasing partial vertical integration via shareholding among members. This paper investigates a supply chain consisting an upstream manufacturer and a downstream per-use rental platform, analyzing the manufacturer’s encroachment strategies under three scenarios: no partial integration, partial forward integration (PFI), and partial backward integration (PBI). Some important findings and managerial insights are obtained. First, we find that different partial integration scenarios may bring different impacts on the manufacturer’s encroachment strategies. Under no partial integration and PFI, the manufacturer will encroach when the fixed investment cost of a direct per-use rental channel is low. However, under PBI, additional factors, such as the maintenance cost and platform’s shareholding ratio, also influence the equilibrium strategies. In each scenario, encroachment can result in win-win, win-lose, lose-win, and lose-lose outcomes for the manufacturer and the platform. Second, the manufacturer’s wholesale price decreases with the shareholding ratio under PFI but increases under PBI, reflecting the impact of equity ownership, and the platform’s rental price follows a similar trend. These conclusions suggest that members can adapt to the impact of different equity structures and encroachment by adjusting prices, and the platform with more equity is more likely to benefit from manufacturer encroachment. Finally, two extensions, including different maintenance costs borne by the manufacturer and the platform, and the validity of partial integration, are considered to further verify the robustness of the proposed models.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 22 Dec 2025 16:07:15 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2604647</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Analysis of alternative commercial vehicle road user charges</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2573647</link>
      <description><![CDATA[As fuel tax revenues decline from increased fuel efficiency and the transition to alternative fuels, governments are searching for new revenue sources to support the transportation system. User fees are among the most widely considered substitutes. They could increase both system efficiency and the equity of transportation taxes by more closely aligning prices with costs imposed. The authors conduct an analysis of mileage-based user charges (MBUC) for trucks in California. The authors explore the differences in MBUC relative to current state fuel and weight fees in terms of revenues generated, changes in cost sharing among truck classes and commodity categories, and implications to the State economy as well as households from different income groups. Revenue neutral scenarios have little economy-wide impacts, but shares of fees paid differ across vehicle classes. Increasing the charge to include pollution costs results in negative economic outcomes. Distributional impacts are negligible.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 07 Aug 2025 16:34:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2573647</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>From state of the practice to state of the art: improving equity analysis in regional transportation plans</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2543348</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs) in the United States develop long-range Regional transportation plans (RTPs), which are required in order for municipalities to receive federal funds for transportation projects. Title VI of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 requires MPOs to submit an equity analysis to demonstrate that their RTPs do not discriminate against protected groups. This paper (i) identifies and evaluates the current range of practices in transportation equity analysis in RTPs for the largest MPOs, and (ii) provides practical steps for MPOs to improve their equity analyses. To identify the range of practices, the authors assess how MPOs define equity goals, identify populations of concern, integrate their equity analysis into their RTP documents, use community input, and whether they meet or exceed legal standards. Additionally, they evaluate how MPOs use travel forecasting models in their equity analyses and the quality of their models; they also describe practical steps for MPOs to improve their equity analyses along this dimension. They find significant variability in how MPOs define fairness in their equity goals, define populations of concern, use community input, and use travel forecasting models in their equity analyses. For example, several MPOs conduct in-depth equity analyses using advanced travel forecasting models, synthetic populations of households, and various classifications of populations of concern. In contrast, other MPOs only display the locations of RTP projects on a map with geographies labeled as disadvantaged or non-disadvantaged. They also find that MPOs with more restrictive state requirements than federal guidelines produce higher quality equity analyses—an important finding considering the Biden Administration’s review of Executive Order 12898, a potential avenue to alter guidelines to improve MPO equity analyses.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 28 Apr 2025 08:50:36 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2543348</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Airline industry equities under external uncertainty shocks</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2438115</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The authors gauge the impact of news and other relevant external uncertainties facing airline firms via an equity market lens. Using local projections, the authors establish that rising investors’ fear shocks have long-lasting negative effects on airline industry equity returns, while increasing geopolitical, climate policy, and fuel cost uncertainties have comparatively short-lived impacts. The authors' results are robust to several alternative model specifications, including a pre-pandemic subsample. Based on their findings, the authors provide a promising avenue for future research in airline financial management.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 17 Oct 2024 09:15:19 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2438115</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Buying airline partners: Parallels between Swissair and Etihad Airways</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2317326</link>
      <description><![CDATA[During the 1990s Swissair adopted an alliance business model through the purchase of minority stakes in a number of carriers. Etihad Airways followed a similar approach from 2011 through until the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic, building equity stakes in a range of carriers in Europe, and the Indo-Pacific region. This paper uses comparative case study analysis, and argues that making substantial equity investments in second-tier (often loss-making or debt-laden) airlines increases risk without offsetting benefits. Viable alternatives to equity stakes exist including code-sharing, strategic partnerships and global alliance membership, that generate equally attractive customer perceived benefits, while avoiding the need for financial capital being applied less efficiently. Furthermore, this paper argues that profitability is not directly linked to alliance membership. Return on investment is arguably even harder to achieve when the alliance is based on a small selection of second tier carriers. The paper concludes with several future scenarios that could play out for airlines contemplating equity-based alliances, and identifies membership of one of the larger global alliances as the probable better option.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 29 Mar 2024 16:58:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2317326</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A ridesplitting market equilibrium model with utility-based compensation pricing</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2352349</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The paper develops a theoretic equilibrium model for ridesplitting markets with specific considerations of origin-destination demand patterns, competition with other transport modes, characteristics of en route matching, and spatial allocation of ridesplitting vehicles, to adequately portray the intertwined relationships between the endogenous variables and decisions. The operation property of the market under distance-based unified pricing is analyzed through the response of system performance indicators to the decisions. Moreover, a gradient descent algorithm is derived to find optimal operating strategies in the monopoly scenario and social optimum scenario. Leveraging the tight connection between trip’s utility and level of service (LoS), the paper then proposes a utility-based compensation pricing method to alleviate the inequity issue in ridesplitting, which results from the variance in waiting time and detour time and the implementation of unified pricing. Specifically, the trip fare of those with an initial utility smaller than a threshold will be compensated following a predefined compensation function. The authors compare its effectiveness and influence in different scenarios through numerical experiments at Munich. The results show that the proposed pricing method can improve the LoS and equity without losing any profit and welfare, and can even achieve increments in maximum profit and social welfare under certain conditions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 27 Mar 2024 16:52:36 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2352349</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Navigating default risk in supply chain finance: Guidelines based on trade credit and equity vendor financing</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2320713</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Controlling default risks and mitigating the negative impacts of risk aversion behaviors are crucial in supply chain financial activities. However, limited academic research exists on how firms should behave under default risk controls and how to improve channel efficiency using equity vendor financing. In this study, the authors focus on a supply chain consisting of a default risk-controlling supplier and a capital-constrained retailer controlling the risk of losing money. First, they explore the two firms’ decisions in trade credit financing when the default or losing money probabilities are controlled. Their findings show that the retailer reduces its risk by ordering fewer products; the supplier can reduce its risk by increasing the wholesale price or interest rate, where the former maximizes its expected profit while the latter helps distribute more products than the former. However, all these measures decrease supply chain efficiency. Second, to alleviate the negative impact of risk controls, they propose a portfolio by combining debt vendor financing (i.e., trade credit) with equity vendor financing, where a portion of trade credit financing is converted into equity financing. This portfolio can achieve win-win situations and channel coordination, while also meeting each firm’s risk management objectives. Additionally, by extending their model to a case where the wholesale price is determined exogenously, they find that the main conclusions still hold and obtain some complementary results. Finally, considering long-tail demand, they find that firms can also mitigate the impact of risk control by influencing the demand distribution through promotions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 24 Jan 2024 09:55:45 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2320713</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The E-Bike City as a radical shift toward zero-emission transport: Sustainable? Equitable? Desirable?</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2219645</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This think piece discusses current barriers to the rapid decarbonization of transport and ways to overcome them. Policymakers face a set of contradictory goals, leading them to ponder only incremental measures: The need to reduce carbon emissions conflicts with accessibility improvements and the resulting induced traffic. At the same time, the prevention of urban sprawl as a means of promoting sustainable mobility is fundamentally thwarted by technical advances in electric cars and autonomous driving. Unable to attract public acceptance for measures that would effectively reduce travel demand, transport policy is failing to provide convincing transition pathways toward sustainable and equitable mobility for growing urban populations.As a possible way forward, the authors propose a new starting point for transport policy discussions, exploring the feasibility of urban transport systems based on sustainable, flexible, and relatively cheap modes of active mobility – the E-Bike City. This paper aims to outline a research agenda for testing the effects of such a policy direction. In contrast to the literature on “cycling cities”, this effort should include possibilities newly opened by the recent availability of electric micro-mobility vehicles. Also, it should aim for a balanced and realistic transition rather than a unimodal utopia.Inspired by friendly conversations around recent urban visions like 15-Minute Cities or Superblocks, this paper is meant to begin a new discussion about alternative future directions for transport policy beyond mere optimization and technical incrementalism.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 31 Jul 2023 08:45:45 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2219645</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Spatial Inequity of Transit and Automobile Access Gap across America for Underserved Population</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2201252</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study examines the correlates of the Modal Access Gap (MAG) between transit and automobile to employment opportunities in the 45 most populated American metropolitan areas by testing spatial lag regression models and employing the bivariate local indicator of spatial autocorrelation (BiLISA) at the census block group geographical level. Four findings are discerned. First, MAG is positive regardless of the metropolitan area and travel-time threshold and ranges from 0.22 to 0.98. This indicates transit trails automobile in offering access to employment opportunities. Second, millennials and carless households tend to reside in areas with a narrower MAG, while people with disabilities reside in areas with a wider MAG. Third, areas with a high share of carless households and relatively low transit access to employment opportunities are primarily clustered in the suburbs and exurbs of American metropolitan areas. Fourth, the MAG disproportionately affects socially vulnerable populations, including the elderly, people with disabilities, low-income households, Hispanics, and African Americans. Compared with the national average, modal access inequity is prevalent for the elderly in 27, for people with disabilities in 22, for low-income households in 17, for Hispanics in 14, and for African Americans in 12 metropolitan areas. This research is a necessary step forward for instilling social equity into transport planning strategies in parallel with governmental efforts.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 23 Jun 2023 10:03:47 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2201252</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Nationwide Residential Real Estate Market Data Analysis of Negative Equity</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2108120</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This report is the result of a contracted study and analysis of comparative and determinate sale price data of owner-occupied single-family residential dwelling (SFRD) units to facilitate the Federal Highway Administration’s (FHWA's) consideration of whether there is a need to continue the Temporary Waiver of Methodology for Calculating a Replacement Housing Payment (Waiver). This study consisted of a nationwide examination of residential real estate market sale price data by gathering, documenting, compiling, and comparatively analyzing the data for each State aggregated to the zip code level. Data were gathered from 2006, prior to the historically unique 2008 real estate market crash, through the end of July 2019 (the latest reliable data available). To initiate this analysis, market research and evaluation was undertaken to generate a list of potential real estate market data vendors that met the criteria of providing SFRD unit sale price data for the specific time period. Based on the market research and detailed evaluation of the finalist vendors, a recommendation was made for First American Data Tree (FADT) to be selected as the data vendor. It was further recommended that only one data vendor was necessary and would be required to achieve the objective of the study. Multiple purchases from different vendors would come at substantial cost, and would result in acquisition of duplicate sets of essentially the same data that would not deepen the understanding of the equity trends in the residential real estate market. The data received from the vendor had undergone initial filtering to generate a dataset of owner-occupied residential structures that were sold as arm’s length transactions under market conditions (34,513,676 transaction records). During quality control checks, a small percentage (approximately 3%) of anomalous data were excluded, representing erroneously keyed large transaction amounts (over $40 million) and multiple parcels included in a single sale price. The data were then grouped by State, zip code, and aggregation year, and the analysis was conducted. For the zip code level analysis, summaries of zip codes with fewer than 30 transactions per year were not included; however, these transactions are included in the State and National level analyses. Additional quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) was undertaken following the analysis. The nationwide results indicate that the residential real estate market in the United States has returned to its pre-crash level. There are eleven states that have not yet regained 100% of their pre-crash median sale prices, with only two States that have regained less than 90% of their pre-crash median sale prices. Examined at the State and zip code level, a variety of trends are apparent in different States and in the various zip codes within each State, depending on specific conditions in each market. Several publicly available large scale or general analyses were reviewed and compared against the results of the intermediate scale analyses carried out in this project, which validated the findings. Based on review of the sales data, a recommendation is made to allow the Waiver to expire. However, it is important to note that there may be a case by case need for the Waiver because a few markets have not yet fully recovered. A further recommendation is for additional spatial and trend analyses of the data, as such analyses would provide valuable insights to FHWA’s Office of Real Estate Services that are beyond the scope of this project.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 08 Feb 2023 18:02:49 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2108120</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Equity-oriented vehicle routing optimization for catering distribution services with timeliness requirements</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2035829</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The rapid development in the catering services and urban logistics industries has significantly promoted the prosperity of business-to-consumer (B2C) e-commerce urban logistics distribution, which is gaining increasing interest from food producers, distribution platforms, and consumers. Unlike traditional logistics supply chains, catering distribution services have strong timeliness and consideration of delivery delay. Traditional distribution platforms usually group commodities by their origins or destinations and then transport each group with one logistics vehicle. However, for a logistics distribution area with limited commodities, the vehicle capacity cannot be fully utilized if one vehicle can only transport commodities with the same origin or destination. Therefore, a mixed-load strategy is proposed in which commodities with different origins or destinations in a distribution area could be transported by the same vehicle to improve vehicle capacity utilization. A mixed-load strategy would further cause delivery sequencing problems, leading to different delivery delays for customers. This study proposed an equity-oriented vehicle routing problem for food distribution services with timeliness requirements considering a mixed-loading strategy and vehicle capacity constraints. For the above problem, a multi-commodity flow optimization model was constructed for the equity-oriented vehicle routing problem and a mixed-load strategy based on a time-discretized space-time-state network representation. An augmented Lagrangian relaxation approach was utilized to reformulate the original model and thus effectively solve the proposed model. Furthermore, the augmented Lagrangian model was decomposed and linearized into a series of shortest path searching subproblems and iteratively solved by a dynamic programming algorithm using an alternating direction method of multipliers (ADMM)-based solution framework. Finally, the proposed model and solution approaches were tested on numerous networks.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 20 Oct 2022 10:23:58 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2035829</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Equity and other effects of a program facilitating and promoting active travel</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1969956</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The proportion of trips involving walking or cycling (active travel) in New Zealand is diminishing. In two small provincial cities, funding was provided to install walking and cycling infrastructure and run programs to promote and normalise active travel. The authors aimed to analyse effects five years after baseline along with changes in active travel for Māori and people on lower incomes.A total of 2,500 people were interviewed in person before the start of the intervention and four times subsequently. Some were part of a cohort that was surveyed more than once. Two matched control cities that did not receive the funding provided a comparison group.The program was associated with sustained increases in active travel rates in the intervention cities compared to the controls. Māori increased active travel rates considerably more than non-Māori, as did members of households with below median income. The program was successful in addressing some inequities within a car-dominated transport system.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 23 Jun 2022 09:16:40 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1969956</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Transferal of Responsibilities of PPP European Equity Markets: Dependency Analysis</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1923483</link>
      <description><![CDATA[When ensuring the growth and sustainability of infrastructure projects, a significant amount of capital must be available. For this reason, the public sector needs to seek new financing methods, and the private sector is willing to contribute to this financial muscle through local and foreign Equity Provider participation. Nevertheless, it is necessary to outline the risk accurately to guarantee private participation. Furthermore, many scholars have shown that foreign Equity Providers’ (EP) participation can bring new ideas and expertise to develop local markets. The EPs seek to mitigate financial risks by collaborative ventures. The influence, holding, and participation of foreign and local EPs in local industries can be understood through Cross-Holding Matrixes (CHM) and visualized using network diagrams. This research uses CHM to understand the interdependence between infrastructure investments in some European countries (Germany, France, Netherlands, Italy, the UK, Spain, Austria, Portugal, and Belgium). The results show that Spain, France, and the UK position themselves within the road infrastructure projects, while the latter appears as the leader for the social infrastructure sector.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 29 Mar 2022 16:50:32 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1923483</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Toward equity in large-scale network-level pavement maintenance and rehabilitation scheduling using water cycle and genetic algorithms</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1927302</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Appropriate pavement maintenance is of great importance due to the increasing deterioration of pavements and limited resources. Nowadays, highway agencies face large-scale networks. The management of large-scale networks is a challenge concerning the computational complexity, which typically increases exponentially with the dimension of the network. Water cycle and genetic algorithms (WCAs and GAs) are utilised in this paper to find the optimal maintenance schedule of large-scale pavement networks. A new practical constraint is introduced in the mathematical formulation that the total annual costs should not fluctuate more than a predefined limit over the planning horizon. Moreover, a novel index is developed to calculate the equity level in pavement maintenance scheduling, and the outcomes of the algorithms are compared based on this equation. A real road network with 103 pavement sections is the case study of this paper. The results show that ‘Equity index’ is reduced by 94% and 48% during the analysis period by WCA and GA, respectively. Drawing on WCA and GA optimal solutions, the average international roughness index of the network is decreased by 35% and 31% respectively in a 5-year horizon. Moreover, the variance of the maximum and minimum allocated budget in the analysis period is less than 15%.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 28 Mar 2022 18:19:05 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1927302</guid>
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