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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <item>
      <title>The impact of walking while using a smartphone on pedestrians’ awareness of roadside events</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1459256</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Previous studies have shown that using a cell phone to talk or text while walking changes gait kinematics and encourages risky street-crossing behaviors. However, less is known about how the motor-cognitive interference imposed by smartphone tasks affects pedestrians’ situational awareness to environmental targets relevant to pedestrian safety. This study systematically investigated the influence of smartphone use on detection of and responses to a variety of roadside events in a semi-virtual walking environment. Twenty-four healthy participants completed six treadmill walking sessions while engaged in a concurrent picture-dragging, texting, or news-reading task. During distracted walking, they were required to simultaneously monitor the occurrence of road events for two different levels of event frequency. Performance measures for smartphone tasks and event responses, eye movements, and perceived workload and situational awareness were compared across different dual-task conditions. The results revealed that during dual-task walking, the reading app was associated with a significantly higher level of perceived workload, and impaired awareness of the surrounding environment to a greater extent compared with the texting or picture-dragging apps. Pedestrians took longer to visually detect the roadside events in the reading and texting conditions than in the dragging condition. Differences in event response performances were mainly dependent on their salient features but were also affected by the type of smartphone task. Texting was found to make participants more reliant on their central vision to detect road events. Moreover, different gaze-scanning patterns were adopted by participants to better protect dual-task performance in response to the changes in road-event frequency. The findings of relationships between workload, dual-task performances, and allocation strategies for visual attention further our understanding of pedestrian behavior and safety. By knowing how attentional and motor demands involved in different smartphone tasks affect pedestrians’ awareness to critical roadside events, effective awareness campaigns might be devised to discourage smartphone use while walking.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 27 Mar 2017 09:26:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1459256</guid>
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      <title>Concurrent processing of vehicle lane keeping and speech comprehension tasks</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1278257</link>
      <description><![CDATA[With the growing prevalence of using in-vehicle devices and mobile devices while driving, a major concern is their impact on driving performance and safety. However, the effects of cognitive load such as conversation on driving performance are still controversial and not well understood. In this study, an experiment was conducted to investigate the concurrent performance of vehicle lane keeping and speech comprehension tasks with improved experimental control of the confounding factors identified in previous studies. The results showed that the standard deviation of lane position (SDLP) was increased when the driving speed was faster (0.30 m at 36 km/h; 0.36 m at 72 km/h). The concurrent comprehension task had no significant effect on SDLP (0.34 m on average) or the standard deviation of steering wheel angle (SDSWA; 5.20° on average). The correct rate of the comprehension task was reduced in the dual-task condition (from 93.4% to 91.3%) compared with the comprehension single-task condition. Mental workload was significantly higher in the dual-task condition compared with the single-task conditions. Implications for driving safety were discussed.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 03 Dec 2013 09:12:10 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1278257</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Stereoscopic displays for air traffic control: conflict judgement performance as a function of visualisation, task characteristics and expertise</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1263887</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Three different stereoscopic 3D visualisations are compared with the 2D display currently used at air traffic control (ATC) controller working positions. Using safety critical air traffic scenarios, air traffic controllers (ATCOs), pilots, and two groups of laypersons, one of which with appropriate training, are asked to judge safety critical scenarios showing two converging aircraft. To simulate the cognitive demands ATCOs have to face when required to process both visual information of the traffic situation display and auditory information caused by incoming radio messages at the same time, an auditory task is added. Due to the experimental manipulation of visualisation-, task-, and person-related variables, the results allow for an explanation of the inconsistent results that have been reported in studies evaluating the use of 3D for ATC. Analyses reveal that performance differences between 2D and 3D depend on both task characteristics and the level of expertise. While the judgement certainty of 2D and 3D is virtually equal in all cases of conflict, the observed differences between the modes of visualisation appear to be due to the dimension on which the aircraft miss each other in case of separation. When judgement certainty is ignored, no noteworthy differences appear. Thus, the results depend on the individual response criterion, because it represents the level of uncertainty the operator is willing to accept.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 30 Sep 2013 10:32:28 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1263887</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>An Initial Assessment of the Significance of Task Pacing on Self-Report and Physiological Measures of Workload While Driving</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1263061</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In block A of a simulator study, a sample of 38 drivers showed a stepwise increase in heart rate and skin conductance level (SCL) from single task driving and across 3 levels of an auditory presentation – verbal response dual task (n-back), replicating findings from on-road research. Subjective ratings showed a similar stepwise increase, establishing concurrent validity of the physiological indices as measures of workload. In block B, varying the inter-stimulus interval in  the intermediate 1-back level of the task resulted in a pattern across self-report workload ratings, heart rate, and SCL suggesting that task pacing may influence effective workload. Further consideration of the impact of task pacing in auditory-verbal in-vehicle applications is indicated.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 24 Sep 2013 09:13:47 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1263061</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Effect of Feedback on Performance in the Lane-Change Test</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1107799</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The Lane-Change Test (LCT) is an easy-to-use methodological tool that has proven useful for researching dual-task driving situations. This paper examines the effect of feedback on LCT performance. Feedback is important for maintaining the focus of attention on the primary (driving) task and providing motivation for learning. An experiment was conducted in which two driver groups performed the LCT with or without end-of-block summary feedback. Results showed that the presence of feedback significantly improved performance, as revealed by lower overall means and lower standard deviations (with practice) of lateral deviation values. The authors conclude that feedback can have a positive effect on performance in the LCT and, therefore, it may be critical to include such feedback when using this, as well as similar tasks, to investigate dual-task driving situations.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 16 Aug 2011 13:56:07 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1107799</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Walking and Talking: Dual-Task Effects on Street Crossing Behavior in Older Adults</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1104947</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article describes how the ability to perform multiple tasks simultaneously has become increasingly important as technologies such as cell phones and portable music players have become more common. This article examined dual-task costs in older and younger adults using a simulated street crossing task constructed in an immersive virtual environment with an integrated treadmill so that participants could walk as they would in the real world. Participants were asked to cross simulated streets of varying difficulty while either undistracted, listening to music, or conversing on a cell phone. Older adults were more vulnerable to dual-task impairments than younger adults when the crossing task was difficult; dual-task costs were largely absent in the younger adult group. Performance costs in older adults were primarily reflected in timeout rates. When conversing on a cell phone, older adults were less likely to complete their crossing compared with when listening to music or undistracted. Analysis of time spent next to the street prior to each crossing, where participants were presumably analyzing traffic patterns and making decisions regarding when to cross, revealed that older adults took longer than younger adults to initiate their crossing, and that this difference was exacerbated during cell phone conversation, suggesting impairments in cognitive planning processes. The data presented in this article suggest that multitasking costs may be particularly dangerous for older adults even during everyday activities such as crossing the street.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 28 Jun 2011 07:41:25 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1104947</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Human Performance, Simulation, and User Information Research</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1089519</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This issue contains 10 papers on the subject of human performance, simulation, and user information research.  Specific topics discussed include the following:  driver response to adaptive lane departure warning system; changes in spatial attention with dual-task driving; characterization of longitudinal driving behavior; characterizing individual driver response to yellow change interval at signalized intersections; driving simulator study of steering adaptation patterns; simulator fidelity and validity in a transfer-of-training context; effect of simulator motion cuing on steering control performance; safety effectiveness of advance street name signs; roadway guide signs at an international airport; and modeling travelers' responses to incident information provided by variable message signs.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 26 Jan 2011 16:56:51 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1089519</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Limits of spatial attention in three-dimensional space and dual-task driving performance</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1083877</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The present study examined the limits of spatial attention while performing two driving relevant tasks that varied in depth. The first task was to maintain a fixed headway distance behind a lead vehicle that varied speed. The second task was to detect a light-change target in an array of lights located above the roadway. In Experiment 1 the light detection task required drivers to encode color and location. The results indicated that reaction time to detect a light-change target increased and accuracy decreased as a function of the horizontal location of the light-change target and as a function of the distance from the driver. In a second experiment the light change task was changed to a singleton search (detect the onset of a yellow light) and the workload of the car following task was systematically varied. The results of Experiment 2 indicated that RT increased as a function of task workload, the 2D position of the light-change target and the distance of the light-change target. A multiple regression analysis indicated that the effect of distance on light detection performance was not due to changes in the projected size of the light target. In Experiment 3 the authors found that the distance effect in detecting a light change could not be explained by the location of eye fixations. The results demonstrate that when drivers attend to a roadway scene attention is limited in three-dimensional space. These results have important implications for developing tests for assessing crash risk among drivers as well as the design of in vehicle technologies such as head-up displays.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 28 Dec 2010 13:30:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1083877</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Effects of Alcohol on Attention Orienting and Dual-Task Performance During Simulated Driving: An Event-related Potential Study</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/981855</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The authors assess how alcohol affects simulated driving performance and "attentional processes" (i.e., cognitive processing of distracting events). Testing is conducted on 32 participants using the Divided Attention Steering Simulator (DASS) to assess reactions to five specific blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) (i.e., 0.00%, 0.02%, 0.05%, 0.08%, and 0.10%). An additional 16 participants are assessed in a second DASS test -- a "passive auditory oddball" study – to observe how alcohol affects the “event-related potential attention” (ERP) of the brain to perform "passive auditory oddball" tasks. As the authors expected, both driving performance (recorded as errors in steering) and oddball tasks are affected by higher BACs, beginning at 0.05%. The authors conclude that, alcohol, observing for dose dependence, increases both the distractibility and secondary task stimuli interference while decreasing attentional processes needed for dual-task performance.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 18 Nov 2010 11:50:10 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/981855</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The Association between Heart Rate Reactivity and Driving Performance under Dual Task Demands in Late Middle Age Drivers</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/918619</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper will discuss how physiological indices of arousal generally increase when heightened demands are placed on an individual’s cognitive resources. As a consequence, measures such as heart rate are frequently used as one method of assessing changes in workload. In a simulation study with young adult (19-23 yrs.) and late middle age (51- 66 yrs.) drivers, heart rate responses were compared during a variety of dual task conditions along with driving and task performance data. During two of the tasks in which younger participants showed significant heart rate acceleration, older drivers, as a group, showed little or no change in heart rate. In this paper we present data on a more detailed analysis of the relationship between heart rate change and performance during one of the dual load conditions, a continuous performance task (CPT). The sample was subdivided into individuals who showed a substantive heart rate acceleration response during the task vs. those who showed little change or heart rate deceleration. Of the 18 younger and 15 older adults in the analysis, 56% of the younger and 27% of the older individuals fell into the heart rate acceleration category. Heart rate response did not correlate with performance on the CPT in the younger subjects. In the older subjects, however, the heart rate acceleration group scored significantly higher on the CPT than those who did not exhibit a pattern of heart rate acceleration. In addition to lower performance on the CPT task, older adults in the non-acceleration group showed a significant drop in driving speed, which is generally interpreted as a compensatory response employed to manage total workload. Overall, the late middle aged drivers who showed a heart rate accelerative response during the CPT task performed better on both the primary and secondary tasks than those that did not. The increase in heart rate in the late middle age drivers in this instance could serve as marker for a variety of important performance mediating variables including relative engagement in the task, availability of resources to invest in the dual tasks, attentional style, or overall flexibility of response. The results suggest the potential value of looking at differences in individual patterns of response in driving behavior studies in addition to overall group behavior. The presence of subtypes of heart rate responders, and the observed performance differences between subtypes in this paradigm, illustrate the importance of these considerations. Other heart rate patterning data from the literature is considered and suggestions for future investigation offered.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 11 Jun 2010 12:05:41 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/918619</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Differential Effects of Focal and Ambient Visual Processing Demands on Driving Performance</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/918446</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In this study, the differential effects of focal and ambient visual demand on driving were investigated. Subjects participated in a dual-task experiment in which they performed a driving simulation task and a focal or ambient side-task. It was predicted that the focal side-task would cause a significant deterioration in the maintenance of longitudinal control but not lateral control, while there should be no effects of the ambient side-task on driving performance. In general, the results suggest a differentiation in the processing demands of focal and ambient vision.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 30 May 2010 07:44:32 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/918446</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The Effects of Dual-Task Interference and Response Strategy on Stop or Go Decisions to Yellow Light Changes</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/918434</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Distractions can interfere with driving by causing central processing bottlenecks. In addition to performance decrements, central processing delays may also impair decision-making during critical driving maneuvers such as stop or go decisions at intersections. It was hypothesized that distractions would delay the stop or go decision leading to more go responses. Participants drove 4 simulated drives and made stop or go decisions at intersections with and without a distracting task. Distractions did not result in more go responses at intersections. Additionally, dual-task interference in braking responses was found to be dependent upon participants’ response strategies. Theoretical implications of response strategy on processing bottlenecks were discussed.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 30 May 2010 07:44:32 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/918434</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Crash Risk; Eye Movement as Indices for Dual Task Driving Workload</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/918492</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The goal of the present study was to examine eye movements as a function of dual task difficulty while driving. Two tasks were examined: maintaining a predetermined distance while car following and detecting a light change. Task demands were manipulated by varying the amplitude of lead vehicle’s (LV) speed change and increasing the average LV speed. As task demands increased, the number of saccades decreased. There was no significant difference in number of fixations, fixation duration, number of eye blinks, or pupil size. While car following performance did not change, drivers were more accurate at the light detection task at the 100% amplitude condition verses the 120%.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 30 May 2010 07:44:31 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/918492</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Younger and Older Adults’ Simulated Highway Driving Performance Under Single and Dual Task Conditions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/918425</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Driving is a complex psychomotor task that is often interrupted by secondary activities that divert attention away from the roadway. The risk of inattentive driving is known vary with age. The degree to which culture impacts these changes is less established. To study the impact of age and culture on drivers’ capacity to manage dual task demands, we developed a parallel driving simulation in the US and Korea. We assessed the performance of 135 drivers divided into two age groups, younger (20–29) and older (60-69). Both age and cultural group differences in basic highway driving performance measures were observed. However, the relative impact of the dual task demands on driving performance was largely consistent across cultures.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 30 May 2010 07:44:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/918425</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Age-Related Driving Performance: Effect of Fog Under Dual-Task Conditions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/814680</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The present study investigated the driving performance of older and younger drivers using a dual-task paradigm. Drivers were required to do a car-following task while detecting a signal light change in a light array above the roadway in the driving simulator under different fog conditions. Decreased accuracies and longer response times were recorded for older drivers, compared to younger drivers, especially under dense fog conditions. In addition, older drivers had decreased car following performance when simultaneously performing the light-detection task. These results suggest that under poor weather conditions (e.g. fog), with reduced visibility, older drivers may have an increased accident risk because of a decreased ability to perform multiple tasks.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 23 Aug 2007 13:01:17 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/814680</guid>
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