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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <title>A High-deck Coach Evacuation Model Framework: Behavioural Modelling, Numerical Analyses and Insights</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2589190</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Evacuation from transportation tools is receiving increasing attention due to its high risk and complexity. However, as a crucial travel mode, high-deck coaches, have been overlooked, lacking a dedicated evacuation model, let alone exploratory simulation analyses. This work proposes an innovative high-deck coach evacuation model framework, where three intertwined modules are developed to separately delineate the strategic, tactical and operational passenger evacuation behaviours. In the strategic behaviour module, the Cox-Weibull hazard duration model is introduced to capture the pre-evacuation times of passengers so that both the distribution characteristics and the dependence on the proximity to the target exit are encapsulated. In the tactical and operational behaviour modules, elaborate behavioural rules are designed and coupled with Cumulative Prospect Theory to comprehensively incorporate the typical behavioural characteristics and decision-making factors of passengers. The framework is validated with empirical data from various scenarios and proven to significantly outperform the state-of-the-art passenger evacuation model. It is found that the CWM substantially improves the prediction accuracy of the framework compared with the Weibull probabilistic distribution. Overtaking behaviour significantly affects passenger evacuations, but does not induce any benefit for the overall system. This study offers valuable tools and insights for high-deck coach evacuation simulation and management.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 26 Sep 2025 13:39:50 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2589190</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Passenger Safety: The Impact of Smoother Bus Acceleration on Passenger Experience Aboard London Buses</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1770212</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Transport policy, in many cities in the world, is encouraging people to use more active modes of transport in preference to the car. Public transport, especially buses, plays an important part in the implementation of this policy. It provides the means for non-car users to travel distances that are too great to walk without difficulty, but most importantly it has the power to create active cities, the members of which enjoy better health and well-being and a cleaner environment.  Nonetheless, there tends to be an assumption that current bus systems, in terms of routes, services, operations, infrastructure and vehicles, are sufficient for people to use, without taking too much trouble to understand the difficulties of using the service as it is currently operated. For example, a maximum acceleration of 3.6 m/s2 was measured amongst various bus routes in London (Karekla, X., 2016). Previous scientific work, however, has shown that, when acceleration is higher than 2.0 m/s2 (Dorn, 1998), standing passengers are very likely to fall over if they don’t hold a handrail. This highlights the severity of the current bus acceleration in London, which is the third most important factor responsible for bus passenger dissatisfaction (Transport Focus, 2015).  Older passengers, especially, are disproportionally represented in non-collision accidents, due to their reduced body capabilities and 3000 falls per year are reported on London buses in the UK for those 65-year-old and over (Kendrick, D. et al., 2015). Similar statistics can be found for other European countries and the US, which shows its global importance. Reducing non-collision injuries aboard buses would greatly reduce the budget spent by health services, as hospitalisation and physiological support to treat fear of falling, usually experienced by the elderly, will reduce.  This work focuses on the London bus system and examines a number of real-life situations passengers find themselves in when travelling by bus. It challenges the smoothness of the current bus service by simulating 5 different levels of acceleration (static, stationary, low, medium and high acceleration) whilst analysing people’s balance on the lower deck and stairs of a double-decker bus. Walking patterns from 29 regular bus users, between the ages of 20 and 80, were collected and statistical methods were employed to draw conclusions on the significant factors causing imbalances for moving passengers during bus journeys (Karekla, X. et al., 2018a and 2018b). Based on sound evidence, an acceleration threshold is proposed, which would increase passenger safety if bus operators were to apply it (Karekla, X. et al., 2018 and 2019).  Alongside the experimental part, this work also discusses the travel patterns and preferences of these 29 regular bus users. Through questionnaires, they state what they want to be able to do during bus journeys, e.g. where they want to sit, and which of these the current service allows. They express which of the examined accelerations better represent the service they are provided and point out the areas of the bus layout in which they are more prone to lose their balance. Interestingly, for some age groups and genders their expressed opinion is not in line with their walking pattern, making it even more apparent that passenger safety cannot be assessed by what’s obvious to the naked eye.  This work is the first of its kind (Karekla, X., 2016) and only recently has started attracting attention. The complexity of the experimental work explains the reasons why so far either only moving passengers or only moving vehicles were studied to examine passenger safety. This work combines the two and examines the real-life situation. It was presented to local bus operators and the transport authority in the UK, who respectively initiated actions of investigating ways to provide better feedback to bus drivers to improve their driving performance and are exploring ways to reduce bus accidents. It was also presented to an international conference in the US, where it generated discussions with transport operators and the general public.  The London bus system is considered advanced compared to other systems. Therefore, this work has the potential to act as a pathway for transferring knowledge to policy makers around the world and to showcase that by improving passenger safety, both the passengers and the operators would enjoy the benefits of active transportation.  Providing feedback to drivers though an innovative device or removing the control of acceleration away from the drivers by controlling the bus engine would improve passenger experience. These should be part of future investigations around this topic.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 19 Feb 2021 10:31:10 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1770212</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Analysis of Wind as a Contributing Factor in Bus Accidents in Rolling Terrain</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1635074</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Large vehicles including double-decker buses are vulnerable to traffic accidents, especially in rolling terrain. However, causes of these accidents are often obscured by the combined impact of the vehicle, driving behavior, and environmental conditions like wind and terrain. This study tried to evaluate bus safety in rolling terrain and wind gradient. A simulation model of the double-decker bus was established and computational fluid dynamics experiment was conducted to obtain the aerodynamic forces. The vehicle dynamics principle was applied to assess the bus stability, and the limit minimum radii were calculated at different wind velocities and driving speeds. Results show that it is unsafe for double-decker buses to travel at design speeds in rolling sections under gale winds. The study is expected to prompt transport enterprises to set strict speed limits for different road sections. The outcome also provides a design guidance for scenic roads in hilly areas.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 22 Aug 2019 16:41:16 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1635074</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Reducing Non-Collision Injuries Aboard Buses: Passenger Balance Whilst Climbing the Stairs</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1568344</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In a previous work of the authors, the impact of acceleration on people’s walking on the lower deck of a bus was examined. The importance of investigating the impact of bus acceleration when people are walking on the bus staircase is also recognized. As many falls occur on steps or stairs, especially during stair descending, eliminating non-collision bus injuries will attract more people to active means of transportation and will contribute towards healthier societies. Twenty-nine healthy and regular bus users (20–80 yrs.), took part in this study. Their natural gait on a static staircase was monitored in a laboratory and was compared to their gait on the staircase of a moving double-decker bus. When the bus was in motion, the most common movements aboard buses were studied: stair ascending during bus acceleration and stair descending during bus deceleration. The examined acceleration levels (low - 1.0 m/s2, medium - 1.5 m/s2, high - 2.5 m/s2) were set in the range of accelerations experienced by passengers on the real bus service in London. ANOVA tests were conducted considering the changes in double support time (DST, gait event indicative of balance) between tasks and levels of acceleration. Participants’ age and gender were also variables informative of the significance of the differences in DST. The results revealed that passengers start their journeys with an inherent disadvantage due to the bus staircase design, which worsens their ability to maintain balance as acceleration increases. To eliminate falls aboard buses, the current acceleration level should be decreased and the appropriate level is discussed in the paper.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 28 Nov 2018 09:21:17 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1568344</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Safety Study of Double-Decker Motorcoaches with Rear Luggage Compartment</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1501767</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Section 5510 of Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act, 2015 (FAST Act) required the Secretary of Transportation to conduct a study on the effects of attaching a luggage compartment to the rear of a double-decker motorcoach, with respect to safety of vehicle operations, fire suppression capability, tire loads, and pavement impacts. This report presents the results of that study. The study was conducted through a combination of analysis and tests with a double-decker motorcoach. The three conditions were a reference loading condition, a regulatory loading condition, and a maximum loading condition. The reference or baseline condition had the load for passengers and luggage but no rear luggage compartment. The regulatory condition had a payload identical to the reference condition, but a rear luggage compartment was attached. In the maximum loading condition the motorcoach, with a rear luggage compartment attached, was loaded to its gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR). The rear luggage compartment did not affect safe maneuverability over the range of conditions tested. There is an unquantified concern that the compartment could contain heat in a severe engine compartment fire and lead to breaching the rear window. The tires and rims have adequate capacity for their loads. States must enact limits on tire and axle loads that are consistent with Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) regulations. The loads under all conditions may exceed some State limits with respect to the FHWA bridge formula.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 20 Mar 2018 17:09:31 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1501767</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Assessing factors causing severe injuries in crashes of high-deck buses in long-distance driving on freeways</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1286781</link>
      <description><![CDATA[High-deck buses that have a higher center of gravity traveling at an excessive speed have a higher likelihood of causing serious and fatal accidents when drivers lose control of the vehicle. In addition, drivers who suffer from fatigue in long-distance driving increase the likelihood of serious accident. This paper examines the effects of risk factors contributing to severe crashes associated with high-deck buses used for long-distance driving on freeways. An ordered logit and latent class models are used to examine significant factors on the severity of injuries in crashes related to high-deck buses. Driver fatigue, drivers or passengers not wearing a seat belt, reckless driving, drunk driving, crashes occurred between midnight and dawn, and crashes occurred at interchange ramps were found to significantly affect the severity of injuries in crashes involving high-deck buses. Safety policies to prevent severe injuries in crashes involving high deck buses used for long-distance runs on freeways include: (1) restricting drivers from exceeding the limit of daily driving hours and mandating sufficient rest breaks; (2) installing an automatic sleep-warning device in the vehicle; (3) drivers with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome or sleep disorders should be tested and treated before they are allowed to perform long hours of driving tasks; (4) educating the public or even amending the seatbelt legislation to require all passengers to wear a seat belt and thus reduce the chance of ejection from a high-deck bus and prevent serious injuries in a crash while traveling at a higher speed on freeways.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 25 Feb 2014 09:15:23 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1286781</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Stability of High-Deck Buses in a Rollover and Contact-Impact with Traffic Barriers</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1245236</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study examines the stability and safety of high-deck buses in a rollover collision with road barriers.   It also includes a literature search to determine the best safety barriers in use globally, with the goal of using the best ones on the roads and highways of Malaysia.  High deck buses are gaining in popularity on the roads of Malaysia, due to their higher rider capacity, and increased revenue for their operators.  However, it is important to determine the safety of these buses.  They can be top heavy and prone to rollover accidents.  The study seeks to analyze the best options for their use, design, and safety.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 19 Apr 2013 13:19:55 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1245236</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Uses of Higher Capacity Buses in Transit Service</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/863246</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This synthesis explores the use of higher capacity (HC) public transit buses in trunk, express, long-distance commuter, Bus Rapid Transit, and special (e.g., sports and special events) services in North America.  For purposes of this study, HC buses included articulated, double-deck, 45-ft, and other buses that have a significant increase in passenger capacity compared with conventional 40-ft buses.  This study examined where and how HC buses were being deployed in regular and flexible public transit services and experiences with these buses.  It drew on available technical information from the American Public Transportation Association (APTA), the Canadian Urban Transit Association (CUTA), HC bus manufacturers, and the Altoona (PA) Bus Testing Center in comparing HC buses with conventional buses with respect to a wide range of planning, operational, and maintenance issues.  This synthesis is intended for an audience of transit agency general managers, their operations, planning, maintenance, and procurement staffs, as well as other transit professionals working with them in the deployment of HC buses.  This synthesis contains information derived from survey data collected from selected transit agencies operating distinct HC bus fleets throughout the United States that provided information by e-mail, through telephone interviews, and by assisting in site visits.  In addition, this synthesis contains a literature review and, in documenting transit agency surveys, it identifies a number of applications of HC buses.  Ad hoc conversations with transit agency staff and experts on specific aspects of the synthesis are also reported, as are more specific findings in three U.S. and Canadian transit agency case studies.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 24 Jun 2008 15:31:51 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/863246</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Tracking the Deadhead: Keeping Non-Revenue Trips Safe, Secure, and Efficient</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/793152</link>
      <description><![CDATA[SBS Transit in Singapore is interested in maintaining control of all bus movements, including during deadheads, primarily to prevent double-decker buses from crashing into overhead structures. To that end, their new Computer-Aided Dispatch/Automatic Vehicle Location (CAD/AVL) system includes features designed to help prevent such problems. This paper describes the operational scenario in Singapore and the control techniques implemented there. The paper then discusses whether similar situations exist in the United States (US) and whether similar control techniques are warranted or desired. Transit industry data and the results of a survey of American transit systems are used to describe a set of motivations for closer deadhead control that apply in the US, as well as a set of control techniques that are either in use or desired. The paper concludes that many American transit systems are likely to have similar concerns to SBS Transit’s that could be met using similar techniques.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 01 Nov 2006 07:28:05 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/793152</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Merging Bus Routes in Hong Kong’s Central Business District: Analysis and Models</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/792558</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A significant portion of the 200,000 people working in Hong Kong’s central business district (CBD) relies on buses as their primary means of transport. During peak hours, nearly a thousand double-decker buses pour into a tiny area of 150 ha. This causes traffic congestion and air pollution. Moreover, given that the flow is uni-directional (into the CBD in the morning and out of the CBD in the afternoon), the occupancy of buses in the CBD is actually low. In this paper, we propose to reduce traffic congestion and to increase bus occupancy by merging bus routes. We describe the peculiar situation of the CBD in Hong Kong and explain the necessary conditions for the possible success of merging routes. Our analysis shows that merging will lead to an overall benefit for all parties, including government, bus operators, and passengers. The actual merging decisions, which routes to merge and at what frequencies buses should run, are determined by a mathematical model. The model also shows quantitatively the benefits of merging routes and the impacts of other factors. The procedure that we follow and the model that we adopt can be applied to other CBD.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 19 Oct 2006 14:16:26 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/792558</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Association between Major Injuries and Seat Locations in a Motorcoach Rollover Accident</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/789634</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Motorcoaches and buses have the highest accident rate among different kinds of vehicles in Taiwan. It is, therefore, important to modify motorcoach designs so that they increase passenger safety. We collected patient data from a motorcoach rollover accident to assess the major injuries of the passengers and the associated risk factors for each type of injury. The accident occurred on a summer day in 2003 in central eastern Taiwan. A double-decker motorcoach carrying 46 passengers and a driver rolled over onto its left side on a downhill path because the coach's brakes failed.  On the upper deck, the coach had four columns of seats, two on either side of a center aisle: 12 pairs on the left side, and 10 pairs on the right. Of the 41 seated people on the upper deck, the passengers in the down side (left seats) of each pair of seats had higher Injury Severity Scores than those in the up side (right seats), and passengers ≥65 years old had relatively higher rates of hemothorax and head injuries with subarachnoid hemorrhage or intracranial hemorrhage than those <65. Multivariate analysis showed that age ≥65 years and sitting on the down side at the time of rollover were independent risk factors for major injuries.  Our analysis of the data from this motorcoach rollover accident showed that most major injuries occurred as passengers in the up side seats were thrown from their seats and compressed the neighboring passengers in the down side. We hypothesize that occupant restraint devices, such as seat belts, might prevent or reduce some injuries in motorcoach rollover accidents.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 29 Sep 2006 10:37:07 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/789634</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>CHANGING DIRECTION--RETHINKING URBAN BUS DESIGN TO ATTRACT THE 21ST CENTURY PASSENGER</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/741655</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Modern society is demanding more accessible city buses, that can provide a safe and comfortable environment for passengers. Most current designs of urban buses have a mechanical layout dating back 50+ years, when operating requirements were very different. This paper describes the LoBUS low floor bus concept, designed for today's modern conditions. The major prerequisite is that responsibility for fare collection is entirely removed from the driver, as is becoming more common in many cities. The new design consists of a power module, attached to a passenger module. The power module contains a front wheel drive power train, and the driver's accommodation, enabling the passenger module to have a very low floor with small trailing wheels and a simple structure. There is enormous flexibility in door/interior layout. While the most common variant is likely to be a 12-meter-long, single-deck bus, double-deck and articulated buses can also be built. The concept is feasible with available components, but manufacturers would face many challenges in order to creat a practical vehicle with competitive life cycle costs.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 01 Sep 2004 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/741655</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>BUSES TO MATCH NEEDS OF THE WORLD'S CITIES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/276153</link>
      <description><![CDATA[While cities in developed nations generally favor high capacity, high cost, long life buses supported by comprehensive maintenance, many developing countries favor smaller, lower cost and short life vehicles.  In some places small buses have evolved from large taxi-type vehicles; in others they have been superimposed on existing transit networks.  The most popular bus design is the maximum capacity single-decker which is low enough to pass under overhead structures and has its doors and passengers always in view of the driver.  Articulated buses are without height restrictions and offer high capacity in busy corridors. Artics are as maneuverable as rigid vehicles but do require special reversing.  They do occupy extra space in storage and shops.  The double decker's main advantage is high capacity while taking minimum road space; extra height can produce operational problems.  Minibuses offer two advantages:  For operators they are cheap to buy; for riders they offer frequent service.  In low-wage economies the large number of drivers need not be a constraint.  Low first cost has to be balanced against short life.  On the other hand the durable bus may become obsolete before its economic life has been achieved.  It can be expected to require at least one major overhaul.  Keys to any bus service are that the vehicles provide adequate capacity, be reliable and easy to use, and that they be affordable.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 28 Aug 2004 04:44:36 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/276153</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>VEHICLE CAPITAL COSTS IN SOUTH AFRICA</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/272692</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This report provides a detailed estimate of capital cost of the following vehicle classes operating in South Africa: car, mini-buses, midi-buses, single-decker buses, double-decker buses, bus-trains, light goods vehicles, medium size goods vehicles and heavy goods vehicles.  The following inputs per vehicle class are discussed and quantified:  initial cost, service period, annual distance covered, vehicle terminal value, rate of interest, average vehicle speed and the influence of vehicle speed on cost of capital.  All calculation techniques are described.  Capital costs at different speeds per vehicle class are presented as follows:  rand per 1000 kilometres, cost per 1000 kilometres a percentage of initial cost, and rand per 1000 seat and standing room kilometres.  (Author/TRRL)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 28 Aug 2004 03:54:43 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/272692</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>10 MOST IMPROVED TRANSIT AGENCIES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/712144</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article presents he 10 most improved transit systems chosen by the editors of Metro from nominations by readers. Annapolis Transit (Annapolis MD), a target of censure by a new mayoral administration in 1998, has doubled its ridership in less than five years by marketing to new riders, color coding maps and signs, installing shelters and bike racks. BC Transit (Victoria, BC) is using new low-floor double- decker buses to make its service more attractive and usable and markets to university students and major employers which use bus passes to encourage ridership. Chicago Transit Authority lost 40% of its riders by the time the Mayor brought in new management in 1997. Major capital spending has helped draw more choice riders in the last few years. Delaware Transit Corp. (Wilmington, DE) has added services linked to major employers and social service agencies. Paratransit ridership has risen 84% since 1995, rail up 33%. A young rider program encourages teens and their parents to consider transit alternatives to driving. The other winners include: Memphis Area Transit Authority, the Big Bear Lake (CA) Mountain Area Regional Transit Authority, the South Bend Public Transit Corporation, the St. Cloud (MN) Transit Commission, Tri-Met (Portland, OR) and Yuba-Sutter Transit (Marysville/Yuba City, CA).]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 31 May 2004 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/712144</guid>
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