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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
    <image>
      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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    <item>
      <title>Characteristics of breaking irregular wave forces on a monopile</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1633261</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The substructures of offshore wind turbines are subjected to extreme breaking irregular wave forces. The present study is focused on investigating breaking irregular wave forces on a monopile using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) based numerical model. The breaking irregular wave forces on a monopile mounted on a slope are investigated with a numerical wave tank. The experimental and numerical irregular free surface elevations are compared in the frequency-domain for the different locations in the vicinity of the cylinder. A numerical analysis is performed for different wave steepness cases to understand the influence of wave steepness on the breaking irregular wave loads. The wave height transformation and energy level evolution during the wave shoaling and wave breaking processes is investigated. The higher-frequency components generated during the wave breaking process are observed to play a significant role in initiating the secondary force peaks. The free surface elevation skewness and spectral bandwidth during the wave transformation process are analysed and an investigation is performed to establish a correlation of these parameters with the breaking irregular wave forces. The role of the horizontal wave-induced water particle velocity at the free surface and free surface pressure in determining the breaking wave loads is highlighted. The higher-frequency components in the velocity and pressure spectrum are observed to be significant in influencing the secondary peaks in the breaking wave force spectrum.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 27 Aug 2019 16:02:48 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1633261</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Structures and Mechanisms of Air-Entraining Quasi-Steady Breaking Ship Waves</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1630186</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The overall objective of this study is to develop a fundamental understanding of the quasi-steady breaking wave regions present in surface ship wakes. The authors' approach uses direct numerical simulation (DNS) and implicit large eddy simulation. Building on their previous efforts looking at three-dimensional canonical dry transom sterns, they focus on the flow structure, air entrainment, and incompressible highly variable density turbulent characteristics in the wake of a fully submerged lifting body. This article represents the first steps of this study. Here, the authors perform DNS of the wake of a fully submerged lifting body with constant forward speed. Depending on the geometry and flow conditions, the wake of the submerged body contains a quasi-steady breaking-wave region downstream of the body that entrains air. The authors show that the simulations accurately predict the force and vortex wake frequency of the submerged body. Lagrangian analysis of the wake shows a frequency of peak entrainment that aligns with the frequency of the vortex wake. Finally, they establish that the power law of the air cavity density spectrum during the peak entrainment periods is predicted by r −10/3, consistent with experiments and theory.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 30 Jul 2019 09:20:01 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1630186</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Experimental Study of Bubble Sweep-down in Wave and Current Circulating Tank: Part I—Experimental Set-up and Observed Phenomena</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1409472</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Bubble sweep-down is a significant issue for the oceanographic vessels, which affect the acoustic surveys. Experimental trials, carried out in the Ifremer wave and current circulating tank on a 1/30 model of the Pourquoi pas?, are presented. The results demonstrate that this kind of experimental facility is well suited to study the phenomenon of bubble sweep-down encountered around the bow of a ship under specific conditions. From these results, two kinds of bubble clouds formation have been observed and analysed: bubble clouds generated by vortex shedding and breaking waves. The vortex shedding bubble clouds appear randomly in all the configurations tested, even without waves or motions. This phenomenon is due to the interaction between the turbulent flow and the specific bow shape of the Pourquoi pas?. On the other hand, the breaking wave clouds appear in the presence of relative motions between the free surface and the bow ship and more significantly under wave sollicitations. A complementary paper presents a parametric study carried out to quantify the influence of the test conditions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:17:02 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1409472</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Honolulu Reef Runway Dike</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1389256</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Criteria for design of a wave barrier to protect the proposed Honolulu International Airport Reef Runway from breaking waves were developed in wave flume model tests. Structures with tribar and quarrystone armor units placed in single and multiple layers, on homogeneous and composite slopes, were subjected to both overtopping and non-overtopping breaking waves. Data on wave runup, armor unit stability, quantities of overtopping water, and transmitted wave heights were obtained using a 1 50 bottom slope, which modeled the irregular coral bathymetry seaward of the proposed structure. The model to prototype scale ratios ranged from 1 5 to 1 35. Model Tests indicated that the weight of armor units placed below one-third the water depth may be three-fourths that of the units located near the water surface. It was noted that the maximum wave runup was 1 8 times the water depth fronting the structure. Data were obtained concerning quantities of overtopping water and transmitted wave heights over the low barriers. The study augments available criteria for economical design of structures subjected to breaking waves.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 30 Mar 2016 09:47:09 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1389256</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Numerical Simulation of Solitary Wave Breaking and Impact on Seawall Using a Modified Turbulence SPH Method with Riemann Solvers</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1357981</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In this paper, the Weakly Compressible Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamic method was modified to simulate two-dimensional plunging solitary wave breaking process. This model solves the Navier-Stokes equations to obtain both velocity field and density and also solves the equation of state to obtain the pressure field. To simulate the turbulent behavior of fluid flow in a wave breaking procedure, Sub Particle Scale model was used. To correct the pressure and velocity field in SPH, Riemann Solver was also implemented. This method was modified with a kernel and gradient of kernel correction to overcome the problems associated with the usage of viscous terms in Navier-Stokes equations. The modified kernel gradient was implemented to the model based on modified kernel in Element Free Galerkin Method. To consider the accuracy of the modified model, a dam break test was performed and model results were compared with available experimental data and unmodified models. These comparisons showed good agreement between modified results and the experimental data. Finally, the transform of plunging solitary wave breaking on a slope was simulated using the modified model. The results showed that this model better agrees with the experiments in the plunging jet impact and splash-up processes. Finally, solitary wave impact on a seawall was simulated by the modified model. The results showed that the modified model has good agreement with experimental data.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 26 Jun 2015 17:12:32 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1357981</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Breaking Waves in the Ocean and around Ships</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1138554</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A wide ranging summary of research on ocean and ship breaking waves carried out within the Ocean Engineering Laboratory at the University of California, Santa Barbara (OEL), beginning in 1985, is presented in a coherent fashion. Emphasis is given to the role of naturally arising wave modulations in their crucial effect on wave breaking, as well as on the essential role which wave breaking plays in wave evolution. The OEL criterion for the onset of wave deformation and breaking is discussed and its mathematical derivation is given; its experimental validation through surface orbital velocity measurements is reviewed. The recent development of a gridless numerical simulation method for the study of post breaking wave flows is discussed, and examples of splashing flows are given, including bores, and bow breaking waves produced by a Wigley hull. Comparison with laboratory and field observations are made whenever possible.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 11 May 2012 09:05:03 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1138554</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Numerical and Experimental Study of the Wave Breaking Generated by a Submerged Hydrofoil</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1138561</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In the present paper the two-dimensional wavy flow generated by a hydrofoil moving beneath the free surface is experimentally observed and numerically studied. The numerical investigation is performed by means of a finite difference Navier-Stokes solver. The free surface is embedded in the computational domain and the flow in air and in water is computed. The Navier-Stokes solver is coupled with a Level Set technique to capture the interface location. The presence of the hydrofoil is taken into account either by introducing suitable body forces on the grid points inside the body contour or by a new domain decomposition approach, developed to concentrate computational efforts in the free surface region. Experimental study concerns the wave-breaking dominated by the ripples formation. The stages of the evolution of a breaking wave generated after the onset of a capillary wave train are visualized. For a fixed Froude number and angle of attack, the depth of the hydrofoil has been gradually varied, until the condition for incipient breaking has been reached. Depending on the condition of the experiment, the wave breaking can start from the forward face of the second or third wave crests, hence propagating to the first wave, leading to the full developed event.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 11 May 2012 09:05:02 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1138561</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Distributions of Wave Steepness and Surf Parameter</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/772680</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Predictions of wave action on slopes, and various wave- and depth-induced processes in the surf zone rely on two principal parameters: Wave steepness and surf parameter. For irregular waves, the theoretical distributions of these parameters are not known. Some studies suggest that wave steepness is described well by the Weibull and lognormal probability distributions. These distributions and thus their predictive utility depend on two key statistics, namely the mean and root-mean-square values of wave steepness. This study develops approximate theoretical forms of these statistics for narrow-band long-crested waves. For waves with steepness less than a Miche-Stokes type upper limit, comparisons with measurements from two severe storms show that the theoretical forms so derived and the resulting lognormal law in particular describes empirical data well. These results then permit the distribution of surf parameter to be approximated in a lognormal form also. Consequently, the nature and implications of such an approximation, resulting statistics and their plausible applications to breaker heights and types on slopes are explored.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 19 Jan 2006 20:47:20 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/772680</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>AN INVESTIGATION ON RANDOM WAVE BREAKING</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/480268</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Probabilities of the breaking of random waves in open seas and in the near shore zone have been determined on the basis of the probability density functions of the wave heights and periods proposed by Bretschneider and Longuet-Higgins.  Probabilities of the different types of breakers have also been investigated considering the effect of the beach slope.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 27 Mar 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/480268</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>BREAKING WAVE AND VOID FRACTION STATISTICS DURING SWADE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/480258</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A new in-situ technique has been developed to detect the presence of wave breaking by measuring the air content near the oceanic surface by the entrainment of breaking waves.  Breaking steep surface gravity waves in seas under moderate to strong wind forcing always involves the entrainment of air into the water column below the air-sea interface.  As such, the presence of air in the near- surface zone may be a positive indicator for occurrence of wave breaking.  This simple idea is the physical basis for the technique that directly measures the percentage of air content (void fraction) under a pre-fixed depth below the sea surface.  The data from such void fraction measurements conducted in the open sea under moderate to high sea state was processed to obtain several breaking wave statistics.  A comparison of the statistics with previously- published statistics employing different techniques shows that the new void fraction technique is a better technique both in its easier execution and its more quantitative discrimination of various sizes of breaking waves.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 27 Mar 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/480258</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>THE ROLE OF SURFACE-WAVE BREAKING IN AIR-SEA INTERACTION</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/467487</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Breaking serves to limit the height of surface waves, mix the surface waters, generate ocean currents, and enhance air-sea fluxes of heat, mass, and momentum through the generation of turbulence and the entrainment of air.  Breaking may result from intrinsic instabilities of deep-water waves or through wave-wave, wave- current, and wind-wave interactions.  Observations in the field are made difficult by the fact that breaking is a strongly nonlinear intermittent process occurring over a wide range of scales. Controlled laboratory studies of breaking have proven useful in measuring the scaling relationships between the surface wave field and the kinematics and dynamics of breaking.  The inability to predict the occurrence and dynamics of breaking is a major impediment to the development of better wind-wave and mixed-layer models. Modern acoustic and electromagnetic oceanographic instrumentation should lead to significantly improved measurements of breaking in the near future.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 04 Nov 1996 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/467487</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>WAVE LOAD MECHANISM TO AVOID BOW VISOR DAMAGE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/467037</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article investigates theoretically a wave load mechanism which can be dangerous for a bow visor construction similar to that on the ro/ro ferry ESTONIA which capsized in September 1994. Some calculations and discussions are presented concerning the following aspects: a) the linear model of wave motions and second order Stoke's wave, and the necessary condition for wave breaking; b) calculation of the time-domain motions of a ship in some wave conditions by means of a kind of Monte-Carlo simulation based on the motion transfer functions, in order to determine the probability and severity of bow submergence in waves even in co-occurrence with a breaking wave; and c) wave load estimation due to slamming impact as a consequence of major bow visor submergence in combination with a breaking wave.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 01 Nov 1996 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/467037</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>MODELLING OF BREAKING AND NONBREAKING LONG-WAVE EVOLUTION AND RUNUP USING VTCS-2</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/456500</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The paper presents a variable grid finite-differences approximation of the characteristic form of the shallow-water equations without artificial viscosity or friction factors to model the propagation and runup of one-dimensional long waves, referred to as VTCS-2.  The method is applied in the calculation of the evolution of breaking and nonbreaking waves on sloping beaches.  The computation results are compared with analytical solutions, other numerical computations and with laboratory data for breaking and nonbreaking solitary waves.  It is found that the model describes the evolution and runup of nonbreaking waves very well, even when using a very small number of grid points per wavelength.  Even though the method does not model the detailed surface profile of wave breaking well, it adequately predicts the runup of plunging solitary waves without adhoc assumptions about viscosity and friction.  This appears to be a further manifestation of the well- documented but unexplained ability of the shallow water wave equations to provide quantitatively correct runup results even in parameter ranges where the underlying assumptions of the governing equations are violated.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 27 Mar 1996 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/456500</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>SIMULATION OF SAND IN PLUNGING BREAKERS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/455791</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A numerical model that simulates the sediment transport due to plunging breaking waves has been developed.  A plunging breaker is simulated by superimposing a jet on a non-breaking wave.  The hydrodynamics are described by applying a discrete vortex model based on the mixed Eulerian-Lagrangian description of the cloud-in- cell method.  Rotation is introduced in the flow where the jet impinges on the surface and in the boundary layer along the bottom. A combined diffusion-convection procedure provides a Lagrangian description of the suspended sediment.  The pickup and initial suspension event in the boundary layer is simulated by a diffusion process, while the transport in the outer flow domain is simulated by convection, using the flow field provided by the hydrodynamic module.  The bed-load transport is calculated by a conventional formula that relates the transport rate to the Shields parameter.  A simulation over a complex bottom topography is compared to the full- scale laboratory experiments performed by Dette and Uliczka in 1986.  The calculated and measured time-averaged concentration profiles show good agreement with respect to the overall concentration levels and the cross-shore distribution.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 04 Mar 1996 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/455791</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>WAVE BREAKING OVER SUBMERGED HORIZONTAL PLATE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/455870</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The inceptive condition for wave breaking over a submerged horizontal plate is proposed.  The establishment of the breaking inceptive condition is based on an empirical formula for partial standing waves breaking in uniform water depth.  To determine the relation between the local waves over the plate and the incident wave, linear analysis is employed and a modification is then made to take into account the nonlinear effect.  A laboratory experiment is carried out to verify the semi-empirically established breaking condition, and satisfactory agreement between the semi-empirical prediction and the experimental observation is obtained.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 04 Mar 1996 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/455870</guid>
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