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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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      <title>Experimental Framework for Simulators to Study Driver Cognitive Distraction: Brake Reaction Time in Different Levels of Arousal</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1414316</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Distraction has the potential to degrade driving performance and may have serious consequences for road safety. There are a number of research studies in this area and most studies concentrate on perception errors as a result of visual distraction, so much so that NHTSA has issued driver distraction guidelines to address visual and manual sources of distraction. Cognitive distraction occurs when attention is withdrawn from the processing of information necessary for the safe operation of a vehicle and seems to be qualitatively different from those associated with visual distraction. Among those sources of distraction, the cognitive one is the most difficult to assess because of the problems associated with the observation of what a driver's brain, as opposed to hands or eyes, is doing.  Despite many published standards, that specify a number of methods for evaluating the visual and manual demand of secondary task interactions, there are currently no published standards that explicitly and exclusively apply to cognitive distraction. In this paper is presented an experimental framework, developed within DRIVE IN2 project (DRIVEr Monitoring: Technologies, Methodologies and IN-vehicle INnovative systems for a safe and eco-compatible driving), based on a driving simulator and car-following paradigm, with the lead vehicle that brakes suddenly when a driver in a loop system, that analyzes in real time EEG signals, detects both very high and very low level of engagement or arousal. As driving simulator, also the Sim-Panda has been used, developed in the project, the first prototype for testing driver monitoring systems in safety conditions and in a real car.  Neuro-feedback for controlling the lead vehicle is obtained by the SDK (Suite Development Kit) of Neuro-Headset Emotiv EPOC, that uses proprietary metrics, that looks for distinct brainwave characteristics that are universal in nature and do not require signature-building or individual baselining. The first is “Engagement”, characterized by increases in beta and attenuated alpha waves, and the other is “Excitement”, associated with arousal and overall physiological response. To study cognitive driver distraction, reaction time is evaluated, measuring time elapsed between sudden braking lead vehicle and response from drivers. Results are interpreted comparing brake reaction time recorded when the two metrics are both above or below specific thresholds, obtaining indications of a driver's ability to quickly and safely respond to the sudden appearance of a threat. Reaction time measures show a great deal of consistency, and the authors preliminary results report that drivers responses to a lead braking vehicle are the slower, the higher is the attention they are paying to the roadway, as the drivers that are engaged in secondary-vehicle activities.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 04 Oct 2016 16:24:44 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1414316</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>The effects of taboo-related distraction on driving performance</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1413506</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Roadside billboards containing negative and positive emotional content have been shown to influence driving performance, however, the impact of highly arousing taboo information is unknown. Taboo information more reliably evokes emotional arousal and can lead to greater attentional capture due to its inherent ‘shock value.’ The objective of the present study was to examine driver distraction associated with four types of information presented on roadside billboards: highly arousing taboo words, moderately arousing positive and negative words, and non-arousing neutral words. Participants viewed blocks of taboo, positive, negative and neutral words presented on roadside billboards while operating a driving simulator. They also responded to target (household-related) words by pressing a button on the steering wheel. At the end of the session, a surprise recall task was completed for all the words they saw while driving. Results showed that taboo words captured the most attention as revealed by better memory recall compared to all the other word types. Interestingly, taboo words were associated with better lane control compared to the other word types. The authors suggest that taboo-related arousal can enhance attentional focus during a complex task like simulated driving. That is, in a highly arousing situation, attention is selectively narrowed to the road ahead, resulting in better lane control.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 31 Aug 2016 08:15:10 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1413506</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Development for Detecting the Reduction in Arousal Level Using a Detection System of Pupil</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1282263</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Drowsy driving has a large risk for serious accidents. It is important for preventing these accidents to warn drivers of their low state of arousal. This paper describes the capability to estimate the arousal level from the area of pupil. We carried out experiments to measure the area of pupil on a driving simulator. The results showed that it has a strong correlation with the level of sleepiness. The difference of the areas of pupil was significant between the state of arousal and that of sleepiness where lane departures could occur.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 18 Feb 2014 13:26:53 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1282263</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Behavior under High Arousal Conditions: On the Difference between High Optimists and Low Optimists</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1281193</link>
      <description><![CDATA[An analysis of individual differences in behavior under high arousal conditions was  conducted. Participants completed a measure of optimism (the Explanatory Style questionnaire) and were divided into high and low optimists on the basis of these  scores. Then, participants played the “water-pipe game” under conditions of “time  pressure” and “severity” designed to increase arousal. (“Emergency” consists of  both these factors together.) In this game, they had to click a computer mouse to  complete the game using the minimum number of clicks. The authors found that high  optimists' click frequency increased and their thinking time declined under the  high-arousal condition. This was not so in the control condition, who tended to act  promptly without much active thought. On the other hand, the authors found that low  optimists' click frequency did not increased under any conditions, but their total  number of clicks was larger than high optimists'. Namely low optimists seemed to  act carefully but in an inefficient fashion. Processing efficiency theory can account  for this pattern: anxiety leads to a reduction in the storage capacity of the working  memory system. These results suggest that trait optimism can influence behavior  patterns such as “choking” under pressure.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 27 Jan 2014 10:45:41 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1281193</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Estimation of Driver’s Attentive State to Visual Objects Outside the Vehicle When Driver is in Low Arousal Level by Using Lambda Response of Eye-Fixation-Related Potentials</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1268139</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In order to design driving support systems that adapt to the driver’s states, this paper investigates the relationship between driver’s arousal level and eye-fixation-related potential (EFRP) while driving and the possibility as a metric to estimate the driver's state. The experiment which required participants to perform monotonous driving task was conducted using motion-based driving simulator. During the experiment, electroencephalogram (EEG) and electrooculogram (EOG) were measured. Their arousal levels were evaluated based on subjective questionnaires, alpha wave power of EEG and lateral deviation of their car position. The results indicate that the peak amplitude of lambda response of EFRP decreases when driver’s arousal level decreases and that the decrease of the peak amplitude of lambda  response also tends to appear earlier than the increase of alpha wave power. These results imply that EFRP would be a usable metric to estimate unsafe driver’s states.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 21 Nov 2013 09:14:37 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1268139</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Research on Maintenance of Driver's Arousal Level Using Steady Running Noise</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1216065</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In order to prevent a driver from dozing as the result of a low arousal state, the authors generated wake-up sounds by processing the pressure, tonal quality, and rhythm of the steady running noise generated by a car. In this paper, the authors evaluated wake-up sounds in a real environment where music or a radio is being played. The results showed that playing music can generate a transient arousal state. Moreover, playing wake-up sounds along with music can maintain the arousal state for a longer period than playing music alone. In addition, the authors focused on the habituation to wake-up sounds, generated wake-up sounds that made habituation more difficult, and evaluated the sounds’ effectiveness for arousal maintenance. The results showed that the wake-up sounds that prevented habituation could maintain the arousal state for a longer period than the wake-up sounds that did not prevent habituation.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 22 Oct 2012 09:14:40 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1216065</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Fatigued driver's driving behavior and cognitive task performance: Effects of road environments and road environment changes</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/891679</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study aims to explore the effects of different road environments and their changes on driving behaviors and cognitive task performance of fatigued drivers. Twenty-four participants volunteered in a 2 (road environment) × 3 (fatigue level) within-subjects factorial design simulated driving experiment. Participants were asked to perform basic numerical calculation and distance estimation of traffic signs when driving normally, and provide answers to a questionnaire on fatigue rating. Results show that fatigued drivers faced greater attention demand, were less alert, and tended to overestimate the distance to roadside traffic signs. Fatigue caused by driving in complex road environment had the greatest negative impact on driving behavior and visual distance estimation, and the fatigue transfer effect worsened significantly but differently on both driving behavior and performance of fatigued drivers when switching from a complex to a monotonous road environment and vice versa. Notably, this study shows that fatigued drivers performed relatively better in arithmetic tasks than non-fatigued ones. In addition, when switching from a monotonous to a complex road environment, drivers' performance in visual distance estimation and arithmetic tasks improved though their driving behavior deteriorated, revealing that the fatigue effect upon drivers might be explained to some extent by their alertness and arousal levels.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 30 Jul 2009 13:48:18 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/891679</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The effects of an interactive cognitive task (ICT) in suppressing fatigue symptoms in driving</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/878361</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Prolonged driving on inter-urban, monotonous roads has the potential of causing a decrease in the general level of arousal leading to a state of underload and fatigue. This study examines the effectiveness of an interactive cognitive task (ICT) in delaying fatigue symptoms induced by underload conditions. The ICT is an auditory-motor task which is based on the basic principles of a knowledge game known as "Trivia". Ten participants took part in two experimental sessions of 140 min drive in a fixed-base simulator. In a within-subject counterbalanced design one session consisted of driving without ICT and the other included ICT operation. In the ICT session the game was activated after 60 min of driving. When activated, the ICT increased physiological indicators of arousal, increased subjective feelings of alertness, and improved driving performance. The physiological and driving performance measures revealed that the ICT activation had an immediate but localized influence on arousal. Post-drive questionnaires showed that in the ICT condition, the participants' level of motivation increased and their feelings of sleepiness decreased. Engaging in cognitive tasks can counteract the effects of underload and increases driving safety as long as they are active. However, additional research is necessary to determine the effects of long term use.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 22 Jan 2009 09:32:52 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/878361</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>THE INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON MILD DRIVER AGGRESSION</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/663283</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study investigates the influence of self-selected music on the frequency of mild driver aggression in actual low and high traffic congestion conditions. Forty automobile drivers were randomly assigned to one of two groups.  One group listened to their favorite music during their entire commute while the other group abstained from any music or talk radio.  Use of a cellular telephone, state measures of driver aggression, time urgency and stress arousal were obtained during a single commute in low and high congestion conditions.  No predictors of mild aggression were found in low congestion.  Within high congestion, the non-music group demonstrated consistently elevated levels of mild aggression across low and high time urgency.  The music group reported lower levels of mild aggression, but only in association with a low degree of time urgency.  As time urgency increased, aggression increased to match the levels of the non-music group. Contrary to expectation, this study did not find an interactive influence of music and arousal on mild aggression.  Overall findings suggest that music may distract drivers from irritating stimuli or provide a mood enhancing effect unless the driver is experiencing a heightened sense of time urgency.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 30 Aug 2003 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/663283</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>THE USE OF FEAR-AROUSING COMMUNICATIONS IN DRIVER AND TRAFFIC SAFETY EDUCATION</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/107838</link>
      <description><![CDATA[THE SCARE TECHNIQUE HAS BEEN EMPLOYED IN SAFETY EDUCATION FOR MANY YEARS. RECENTLY, PSYCHOLOGISTS AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENTISTS HAVE QUESTIONED THE VALIDITY OF THE SCARE TECHNIQUE AND HAVE MADE NUMEROUS STUDIES TESTING THEIR HYPOTHESES RELATING TO THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FEAR-AROUSING COMMUNICATIONS. THE STUDIES SHOW DIVERGENT RESULTS BECAUSE METHODOLOGIES ARE DIFFERENT AND THEREFORE NOT COMPARABLE. AFTER A STUDY OF THE RESEARCH CITED HEREIN IN ADDITION TO FEAR-AROUSAL RESEARCH CONDUCTED IN OTHER DISCIPLINES, IT IS CONCLUDED THAT, UNTIL MORE INTENSE RESEARCH IS UNDERTAKEN, FEAR-AROUSING COMMUNICATIONS SHOULD BE USED AT AN ABSOLUTE MINIMUM IN DRIVER AND TRAFFIC SAFETY EDUCATION. /AUTHOR/]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 08 Aug 2003 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/107838</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>VIBROTACTILE CUEING AS A MASTER CAUTION SYSTEM FOR VISUAL MONITORING</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/644347</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study examined the use of vibrotactile cuing as a master caution system for co-pilots performing visual monitoring tasks. 16 participants (naval student aviators) monitored a simulated helicopter instrument panel to detect failed flight instruments and gauges. Dependent variables included number of hits, misses, false alarms, sensitivity, and latency time to report failed gauges. Participant arousal levels were measured during the monitoring task with electrodermal response. Results indicate that while vibrotactile cuing did not affect arousal levels, it was effective when used to alert and direct participants to instrument failure. The benefits and potential uses of vibrotactile cuing are discussed in terms of improving performance on tasks requiring sustained attention.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 24 Apr 2003 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/644347</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>SKIN CONDUCTANCE CONDITIONING TO POTENTIALLY PHOBIC STIMULI AS A FUNCTION OF INTERSTIMULUS INTERVAL AND DELAY VERSUS TRACE PARADIGM: PHOBIC CONDITIONING AND ISI PARAMETERS.</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/544839</link>
      <description><![CDATA[No abstract provided.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 29 Sep 1994 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/544839</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF DEVICES FOR PREVENTING LANE DRIFT AND RUN-OFF-ROAD ACCIDENTS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/24204</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Accident data indicates that drowsiness play a substantial role in single-vehicle run-off-road accidents. Shoulder rumble strips were chosen on a concurrent research project as a means of alerting a drowsy driver of incipient departure from the roadway. The concurrent project provided three different types of rumble strips at four locations. Results indicated that paving asphalt-aggregate ribs produced the greatest arousal of a drowsy driver. However, in any case arousal did not last longer than about five minutes. Average angle of departure from the traveled way was about three degrees. All of these results are discussed relative to the run-off-road accident problem together with the use of different shoulder treatments as potential countermeasures.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 15 Jul 1975 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/24204</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>VIGILANCE AS A SAFETY INDICATOR IN CAR-DRIVING</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/139301</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In order to evaluate the effects of real life driving on vigilance, thirty-one subjects were used during one hundred and six test sessions in a series of experiments with increasing driving periods.  The principal parameters were as follows: electrical activity of the cerebral cortex (EEG); heart rate frequency (EKG); spontaneous blinks of the EOG; electrical activity of the neck muscles (EMG); variations of skin resistance (GSR); steering wheel movements; accelerator movements.  In a preliminary experiment, four driving situations were tested: Electrophysiological parameters show different levels of vigilance: the highest arousal corresponding to a driving situation in town while monotonous night driving induces a particularly low arousal.  The first experimental phase permitted the study of decreasing vigilance during two and four hour driving sessions, on the motorway at night. Secondary effects were shown: the state at the beginning and end of the test, and a toll bar crossing, which increased the level of vigilance to a high but temporary degree.  The second part of the study followed up with two long driving tests on the motorway during a longer period of time (six hours), with and without resisting periods.  The influence of long drives and the efficienty of rest pauses on driver alertness were shown.  For any session, with or without rest periods, similar development appeared for most of the parameters during the last two hours.  These experiments provide the basis for recommendations in the context of safe driving.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 19 Dec 1974 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/139301</guid>
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