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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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      <title>Deterioration of binocular vision after alcohol intake influences driving performance</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1895509</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In this study, the authors assessed the influence of moderate alcohol intake on binocular vision, vergence system and simulated driving performance by analyzing the interactions between visual deterioration and driving variables. Thirty young healthy subjects were recruited. For the analysis, the authors measured: visual function (visual acuity and stereoacuity), phorias and fusional reserves. Also, the authors checked Sheard's and Percival's criteria at near and far. The accommodative convergence/accommodation (AC/A) ratio was calculated and vergence facility was also obtained at near. A driving simulator was used to assess driving performance under natural conditions and after alcohol consumption with a breath alcohol content of 0.40 mg/l. Alcohol intake significantly reduced binocular visual performance and vergence function, except for vertical phorias, horizontal phoria at near and Sheard's and Percival's criteria at near. Driving performance parameters also presented a statistically significant deterioration after alcohol consumption. A statistically significant correlation was found between the deterioration in overall visual function and overall driving performance, highlighting the influence of the visual deterioration on the driving performance. Moderate alcohol consumption impairs binocular visual and simulated driving performances, implying a greater safety hazard. In addition, deteriorations in binocular visual function and vergence correlated with simulated driving impairment, which indicates that the deterioration of binocular vision due to alcohol consumption affects driving, thus reducing road safety.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 29 Dec 2021 10:52:16 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1895509</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Contrast Sensitivity and Retinal Straylight After Alcohol Consumption: Effects on Driving Performance</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1888998</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In this study, the authors aimed to investigate the effects of alcohol intake on visual function and driving performance, as well as on the relationship between these. A total of 40 healthy participants took part in three experimental sessions: one baseline session and two further sessions after consuming two different quantities of alcohol (300 ml and 450 ml of red wine). The breath alcohol content (BrAC) was measured using a breath analyzer. The contrast sensitivity and retinal straylight due to the forward intraocular scattering were measured to characterize visual function, and driving performance was assessed in three different scenarios using a driving simulator. The results showed a deterioration in contrast sensitivity and retinal straylight after drinking alcohol, in addition to an impaired ability to drive, especially for the highest alcohol intake. The authors also observed that the deteriorated driving performance was a function of the contrast sensitivity and retinal straylight under the effects of alcohol, indicating that these visual variables can partially predict driving performance in these conditions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 22 Nov 2021 09:07:21 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1888998</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>The effects of alcohol intoxication on cognitive functions critical for driving: A systematic review</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1839206</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Alcohol is the most frequently detected substance in drivers involved in road traffic collisions. Given that up to 35% of fatal road collisions are alcohol-related, it is important to determine the influence of alcohol intoxication on driving-related skills. This review provides an updated and systematic evaluation of the available research concerning the effect of alcohol intoxication on cognitive functions critical for driving. Databases EBSCOhost, PsycInfo, PubMed, Scopus, Transport Research International Documentation (TRID) and Web of Science were searched for controlled trials examining the effect of alcohol on divided attention, executive functioning, perception, psychomotor skills, reaction time and/or vigilance. Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in this review. The authors found that each of the cognitive domains assessed in this review showed impairment at blood alcohol concentrations equal to or below the legal driving limit in many jurisdictions. Future research could determine the effects of alcohol on cognitive functioning with greater accuracy by employing more consistent, reliable and comparable measures while considering the translation of deficits to real-life driving.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 05 Apr 2021 09:51:36 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1839206</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The impact of sleep deprivation and alcohol on driving: a comparative study</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1765126</link>
      <description><![CDATA[BACKGROUND: There is concern about the detrimental effects of shift-workers’ increasing working hours particularly when driving sleep deprived. The approach to measuring the magnitude of driving impairment caused by sleep deprivation was by comparing it to alcohol. The study compared driving performance after 24-h of wakefulness to performance with a BrAC of just over 22 μg/100mls of breath which is equal to 50 mg of alcohol per 100mls of blood (Scottish drink-drive limit). The effectiveness of coffee as a countermeasure for driver fatigue and the association between subjective impairment and actual performance was also investigated. METHODS: A study of 30 participants (11 male and 19 female; mean age 21) was conducted. Subjects were tested under three conditions: fully rested, sleep deprived, and alcohol intoxicated – BrAC mean [SD] 25.95 μg [2.78]. Under each condition, subjects were tested before and after coffee ingestion. This involved driving simulation (Lane Change Task and Reaction Test) and subjective Likert scales (Karolinska Sleepiness Scale and driver impairment scale). Outcome measures included lane tracking adaptive mean deviation, reaction time, and subjective sleepiness and impairment ratings RESULTS: Compared to alcohol, sleep deprived mean reaction times were slower (2.86 s vs. 2.34 s) and lateral control of the vehicle was reduced (lane tracking adaptive mean deviation: 0.5 vs. 0.3). Coffee did not produce an improvement when sleep deprived, and instead, performance deteriorated. Females were less impaired following sleep deprivation than males. Following prolonged wakefulness, the correlation between subjective impairment and actual performance was significant. CONCLUSIONS: It was concluded that sleep deprivation has a greater impact on driving performance than a BrAC of 22 μg/100mls of breath, as measured by driving simulation. Coffee is not an effective countermeasure for sleep deprived driving and drivers’ ability to judge this impairment is suggested to be limited.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 22 Feb 2021 10:21:50 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1765126</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Pedestrians Under Influence (PUI) Crashes: Patterns from Correspondence Regression Analysis</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1728891</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Alcohol-related impairment is a key contributing factor in traffic crashes. However, only a few studies have focused on pedestrian impairment as a crash characteristic. In Louisiana, pedestrian fatalities have been increasing. From 2010 to 2016, the number of pedestrian fatalities increased by 62%. A total of 128 pedestrians were killed in traffic crashes in 2016, and 34.4% of those fatalities involved pedestrians under the influence (PUI) of drugs or alcohol. Furthermore, alcohol-PUI fatalities have increased by 120% from 2010 to 2016. There is a vital need to examine the key contributing attributes that are associated with a high number of PUI crashes.  In this study, the research team analyzed Louisiana’s traffic crash data from 2010 to 2016 by applying correspondence regression analysis to identify the key contributing attributes and association patterns based on PUI involved injury levels.  The findings identified five risk clusters: intersection crashes at business/industrial locations, mid-block crashes on undivided roadways at residential and business/residential locations, segment related crashes associated with a pedestrian standing in the road, open country crashes with no lighting at night, and pedestrian violation related crashes on divided roadways. The association maps identified several critical attributes that are more associated with fatal and severe PUI crashes. These attributes are dark to no lighting, open country roadways, and non-intersection locations.  The findings of this study may be used to help design effective mitigation strategies to reduce PUI crashes.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 29 Sep 2020 10:01:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1728891</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The influence of alcohol (0.5‰) on the control and manoeuvring level of driving behaviour, finding measures to assess driving impairment: A simulator study</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1721577</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The influence of psychoactive substances on driving performance and traffic safety has been extensively studied. Research on the influence of alcohol at the control level of behaviour (i.e. automated processes) has been well established and has shown that the ability to operate a vehicle decreases with rising alcohol levels. However, results one level higher at the manoeuvring level (i.e. conscious processes), are inconsistent. The current study aimed to replicate findings on the influence of alcohol on the control level of behaviour and investigate effects on the manoeuvring level in order to find suitable measures to assess driving impairment. 	 	The study was double-blind, placebo-controlled with a counterbalanced treatment order and a two-way crossover design. Thirty participants performed tasks in a driving simulator under the influence of alcohol (0.5‰) and a placebo. In the driving tasks the control level of behaviour (swerving, average speed, and speed variation) was investigated, as well as the manoeuvring level of behaviour (distance to other traffic during an overtaking manoeuvre, reaction time to a traffic light turning amber, and response to a suddenly merging car). 	 	As expected, alcohol affected the control level of behaviour negatively. Participants swerved more and showed more speed variation after alcohol intake. The manoeuvring level of driving behaviour was also affected by alcohol. The distance to other drivers during an overtaking manoeuvre was smaller under the influence of alcohol. Results on reaction time were however less straightforward. Reaction time increased significantly under the influence of alcohol when reacting to a traffic light but not in reaction to a car unexpectedly merging into traffic. When analysing behaviour in reaction to these different events in more detail it became clear that they were responded to in varying manners, making it difficult to find an average impairment measure. 	 	The deteriorating effect of alcohol at the control level of driving behaviour was replicated, confirming the suitability of the standard deviation of lateral position and the variation in speed as measures of impairment. At the manoeuvring level, the kept distance to the leading car during an overtaking manoeuvre appeared to be a suitable measure to assess impairment as well as reaction time to a traffic light. The current study also confirms the difficulties in evaluating complex driving behaviour and the need for more research on this subject.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 31 Jul 2020 15:15:48 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1721577</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The effects of a change in permissible blood alcohol concentration limit on involving drink-driving in road accidents</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1695276</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The blood alcohol concentration (BAC) limit has an effect not only on the prevalence of drivers under the influence of alcohol (DUI), but also on the occurrence and severity of road accidents. Most researchers in this field agree that reducing the alcohol limit leads to a decreased number of alcohol-related road accidents. Alcohol limit is a consequence of various political and legal factors. Depending on the driver category and country, the limit of alcohol concentration amounts up to 0.8 mg/ml. Alcohol affects drivers differently depending on their age, driving experience, etc. Thus, each alteration of alcohol concentration limit raises the issue of effects resulting from such a change. In 2009, in Serbia the alcohol concentration limit was reduced from 0.5 mg/ml to 0.3 mg/ml, as well as to 0 mg/ml for novice drivers, professional drivers and motorcyclists. After several years of application of more stringent alcohol limits, a research was conducted in order to identify the effects of reduced alcohol limit on involving DUI drivers in road accidents. The studies dealt with the influences of zero tolerance on novice drivers and motorcycle riders, as well as with the effects of reduced alcohol limits on other drivers and their involvement in road crashes. In order to study the influence of alcohol limits thus reduced, the researchers considered the relationship between the involvement of DUI drivers in road accidents in the years before and after the change in the permissible alcohol limit. The results of this study can be valuable for further development of the legislation related to alcohol concentration limits.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 23 Apr 2020 15:58:26 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1695276</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The Impact of Somatic Stressors on Pilot</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1678646</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Nowadays, people encounter almost every day the effects of various stressors and stimuli that cause a stress response. This article deals with the influence of selected somatic stressors on the pilot during flight. The aim of the study was to analyze the impact of noise, hypoglycemia and increased blood alcohol on piloting accuracy during the ILS Precision Approach procedure, since the landing is the phase of flight with the highest accident rate and the pilot is subjected to the greatest mental stress. For the sake of safety, the authors decided to make their measurements on a flight simulator located at Zilina Airport. Five pilots took part in the measurements, and the ILS approach to the runway 06 of the Zilina airport was gradually completed. The results of the measurements, the flight accuracy data of the descent axis and the deviations of the flight speed from the speed determined by the flight procedures. Based on the evaluation of the measurement results for the accuracy of the piloting, the conclusions suggest that hypoglycemia had the greatest impact on the accuracy of piloting, followed by increased blood alcohol levels and the least impact on increased noise.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 28 Jan 2020 09:46:29 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1678646</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Effects of alcohol and perceived controllability in optimistic offender drivers</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1627478</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The aim of this study was to analyse how the complexity of the situational context in driving and the effect of alcohol influence the use of internal and external factors in prefactual thoughts and performance in a simulated driving task performed by optimistic and pessimistic drivers who attend rehabilitation courses. 72 drivers took part on a voluntary basis. 21 of them were offender drivers attending intervention, awareness, and rehabilitation courses for recouping points deducted from their licences. 43 drivers were attending courses for advanced professional driving licences or the like. The participants followed a route in a driving simulator. At the training stage, the authors adjusted the task difficulty to induce a high or low perception of control; in addition, they established the condition of alcohol intake or not. On the basis of the outcome obtained in this stage, the participants had to report the resources they required for improving their outcomes. The authors used different factor ANOVAs to analyse their results. In all cases, the tests were conducted a posteriori with Bonferroni adjustment in order to analyse the interactions. The most interesting differences are noted under the condition of high difficulty and no alcohol intake, where lower control is induced among the participants and where the drivers have not consumed alcohol. In contrast to non-offending pessimistic and optimistic drivers, optimistic offender drivers think their results would be better if there were external factors. The authors may contend that optimistic offender drivers think they are more likely to achieve the outcomes they want. This thinking may be motivated by the fact that this group does not perform better than the rest of the groups.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 05 Jun 2019 14:20:37 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1627478</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Student drivers the morning after drinking: A willingness to violate road rules despite typical visual attention</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1584627</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Substantial research has investigated the effects of alcohol consumption on cognitive functions. However, little research has been conducted which examines the effects of evening alcohol consumption on next morning driving performance. The current study investigated the effects of a night out involving drinking on students’ morning after simulator driving performance, conducted as a within-subject naturalistic study. Thirty student drivers between the ages of 19–23 participated. Driving performance measures and eye movements were recorded while participants performed a short-simulated motorway driving task between 9 and 10 a.m., both after an evening consuming alcohol and on a control morning (no alcohol consumed). The task required drivers to respond to a speed limit and hazardous vehicle, with driving performance being compared over four road sections (speed reduction section, hazard section and two control sections). Sleep duration the night before the drives and breath alcohol content immediately before each drive were recorded. The main findings indicate that despite the majority of drivers being legal to drive, in the morning after condition drivers tended to travel at higher maximum speeds, travel for a longer period of time over the speed limit and demonstrate a larger variance in speed. However, no differences were found in visual attention measures. These findings suggest that the morning after drinking is associated with dangerous driving behaviour in terms of violating road rules even when no deficits in attention are observed. The implications for road safety are discussed, focusing on informative programmes to educate drivers of the dangers associated with morning after driving.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 25 Feb 2019 11:47:46 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1584627</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Distracting and Risky Behaviours while Cycling: a Comparison of Group and Non-Group Riders in Western Australia</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1503474</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study used an online questionnaire to compare the risk of using mobile phones, portable audio equipment and riding under the influence of alcohol while non-group riding in Perth, WA for cyclists who participated in group riding versus exclusive non-group riders. Group riders were less likely to have possibly cycled while over the legal blood alcohol limit in the past 12 months (OR: 0.56, 95% CI: 0.34-0.92) and were less likely to ever use portable audio equipment (OR: 0.57, 95% CI: 0.340.94) than exclusive non-group riders, while participating in non-group riding. Group riding was not associated with mobile phone use.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 01 Mar 2018 10:02:25 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1503474</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Cannabis, alcohol and fatal road accidents.</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1491336</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This research aims to estimate the relative risks of responsibility for a fatal accident linked to driving under the influence of cannabis or alcohol, the prevalence of these influences among drivers and the corresponding attributable risk ratios. A secondary goal is to estimate the same items for three other groups of illicit drugs (amphetamines, cocaine and opiates), and to compare the results to a similar study carried out in France between 2001 and 2003. Police procedures for fatal accidents in Metropolitan France during 2011 were analyzed and 300 characteristics encoded to provide a database of 4,059 drivers. Information on alcohol and four groups of illicit drugs derived from tests for positivity and potential confirmation through blood analysis. The study compares drivers responsible for causing the accident, that is to say having directly contributed to its occurrence, to drivers involved in an accident for which they were not responsible, and who can be assimilated to drivers in general. The proportion of persons driving under the influence of alcohol is estimated at 2.1% (95% CI: 1.4-2.8) and under the influence of cannabis at 3.4% (2.9%-3.9%). Drivers under the influence of alcohol are 17.8 times (12.1-26.1) more likely to be responsible for a fatal accident, and the proportion of fatal accidents which would be prevented if no drivers ever exceeded the legal limit for alcohol is estimated at 27.7% (26.0%-29.4%). Drivers under the influence of cannabis multiply their risk of being responsible for causing a fatal accident by 1.65 (1.16-2.34), and the proportion of fatal accidents which would be prevented if no drivers ever drove under the influence of cannabis is estimated at 4.2% (3.7%-4.8%). An increased risk linked to opiate use has also been found to be significant, but with low prevalence, requiring caution in interpreting this finding. Other groups of narcotics have even lower prevalence, and the associated extra risks cannot be assessed. Almost a decade separates the present study from a similar one previously conducted in France, and there have been numerous developments in the intervening years. Even so, the prevalence of drivers responsible for causing fatal accidents under the influence of alcohol or narcotics has stayed remarkably stable, as have the proportion of fatal accidents which could in theory be prevented if no drivers ever exceeded the legal limits. The overall number of deaths from traffic accidents has dropped sharply during this period, and the number of victims attributable to alcohol and/or cannabis declined proportionally. Alcohol remains the main problem in France. It is just as important to note that one in two drivers considered to be under the influence of cannabis was also under the influence of alcohol. With risks cumulating between the two, it is particularly important to point out the danger of consuming them together.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 14 Dec 2017 16:15:25 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1491336</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Drinking &amp; Driving Among Women in Ontario: A Qualitative Study</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1464434</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In this study, seven focus groups were conducted with women in five communities throughout Ontario, Canada between July 2015 and June 2016. The focus groups explored: (1) knowledge about the effects of alcohol; (2) experiences of women who had driven after consuming alcohol or been a passenger in a vehicle driven by a drinking driver; (3) perceptions related to drinking and driving risks; (4) awareness and use of prevention strategies; and (5) barriers to discussion about drinking and driving among women. This report includes a literature review, research design, development of the survey questions, subject recruitment, survey results including demographics, and details from the focus group discussions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 22 Aug 2017 09:22:24 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1464434</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Closed-Course Study to Examine the Effect of Alcohol Impairment on a Driver’s Ability to Identify and Read Signs</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1439387</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Because alcohol has been found to be the primary contributing factor in many wrong-way crash studies, researchers at Texas A&M Research Institute conducted a nighttime closed-course study to investigate the behaviors of alcohol-impaired drivers and determine their interpretations of various traffic control devices. Researchers found that alcohol-impaired drivers tended to look less to the left and right and more toward the pavement in front of the vehicle. In addition, researchers confirmed that alcohol-impaired drivers did not actively search the forward-facing scene as much as nonimpaired drivers. Instead, alcohol-impaired drivers concentrated their glances in a smaller area within the forward-facing scene. Researchers also confirmed that drivers at higher blood alcohol concentration levels took longer to locate signs and had to be closer to a sign before they could identify the sign background color and read the sign legend. In addition, alcohol-impaired drivers had to be closer to signs with flashing red LEDs around the border before they could read the legend compared with signs without flashing LEDs.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 10 Mar 2017 17:05:47 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1439387</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Using Alcohol Intoxication Goggles (Fatal Vision® Goggles) to Detect Alcohol Related Impairment in Simulated Driving</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1428907</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Fatal vision goggles (FVGs) are image-distorting equipment used within driver education programs to simulate alcohol-related impairment. However, there is no empirical evidence comparing the behavioral effects associated with wearing FVGs to alcohol intoxication. The purpose of this study was to determine the validity of FVGs in producing alcohol-related impairment in simulated driving.   Twenty-two healthy males (age: 23 ± 3 years, mean ± SD) participated in a placebo-controlled crossover design study involving 4 experimental trials. In each trial, participants completed a baseline level simulated driving task followed by an experimental driving task, involving one of 4 treatments: (1) a dose of alcohol designed to elicit 0.080% breath alcohol concentration (BrAC; AB), (2) an alcohol placebo beverage (PB), (3) FVG (estimated % blood alcohol concentration [BAC] 0.070–0.100+), and (4) placebo goggles (PGs). The driving tasks included 3 separate scenarios lasting ∼5 min each; these were a simple driving scenario, a complex driving scenario, and a hazard perception driving scenario. Selected lateral control parameters (standard deviation of lane position [SDLP]; total number of lane crossings [LCs]) and longitudinal control parameters (average speed; standard deviation of speed [SDSP]; distance headway; minimum distance headway) were monitored during the simple and complex driving scenarios. Latency to 2 different stimuli (choice reaction time [CRT]) was tested in the hazard perception driving scenario. Subjective ratings of mood and attitudes toward driving were also provided during each of the trials.   Neither placebo treatment influenced simulated driving performance. Mean BrAC was 0.060 ± 0.010% at the time of driving on the AB trial. Lateral control: In the simple driving scenario, SDLP and LC were not affected under any of the experimental treatments. However, in the complex driving scenario, significantly greater SDLP was observed on both the FVG and AB trials compared to their respective baseline drives. LC increased significantly from baseline on the AB trial only. Longitudinal control: Speed was not affected by any of the experimental treatments; however, SDSP increased significantly from baseline on the FVG trial. A significant reduction in distance headway and minimum distance headway was detected on the FVG trial compared to baseline. Hazard perception: Neither AB nor FVG trials were influential on CRT. Subjective mood ratings were significantly altered on the AB and FVG trials compared to baseline and placebo conditions. Participants reported reduced willingness and ability to drive under the active treatments (AB and FVG) than the placebo treatments (PB and PG).   FVGs may have some utility in replicating alcohol-related impairment on specific driving performance measurements. Hence, the equipment may offer an alternative approach to researching the impact of alcohol intoxication on simulated driving performance among populations where the provision of alcohol would otherwise be unethical (e.g., prelicensed drivers).]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 21 Nov 2016 13:22:18 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1428907</guid>
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