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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <title>Performance of GCL after 10 Years in Service in the Arctic</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1314256</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The performance of a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) installed as part of a geocomposite barrier (geomembrane/GCL) to contain a hydrocarbon spill adjacent to the Arctic Ocean was evaluated by examining sacrificial samples exhumed after 1, 4, 6, 7, and 10 years in service. The hydraulic and chemical characteristics of the GCL were most affected by the location within the soil profile relative to the water table (typically about 1.3 m below ground level). The bentonite in the GCL samples exhumed from a depth of 0.0-0.8 m was well hydrated with a dispersed structure. Despite the significant cation exchange that took place between these GCL samples and the surrounding soil (the percentage of the exchangeable sodium decreased from 68% to 10-15%), there was no change in the hydraulic conductivity (k) of GCL for tap water or jet fuel. A similar bentonite structure was observed for GCL samples exhumed from 0.8 to 1.3 m below ground level; however, an observed network of horizontal and vertical microcracks (200-400 μm wide) in the bentonite layer was attributed to the formation of ice lenses. As a result, the k of these GCL samples increased by one to two orders of magnitude when permeated by both tap water and jet fuel. The bentonite in GCL samples exhumed from below the water table after 6 and 10 years was flocculated with relatively high free pore space. The k values of these samples increased by one to four orders of magnitude for tap water and jet fuel. Despite this increase in k at some depths, there was no evidence of migration of hydrocarbons through the barrier over the last 10 years, indirectly suggesting that the subsurface geocomposite barrier system is still performing well.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 24 Jul 2014 15:21:44 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1314256</guid>
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      <title>Dynamic Shear Strength of Geosynthetic Clay Liners</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1266533</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Information is important for design and long-term performance assessment of facilities in seismic regions that contain Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs). However, only sparse data are available on the dynamic shear strength of a wide variety of GCLs and their interfaces. A research program that tested a wide range has recently been completed on dynamic internal and interface shear strengths for needle-punched (NP) GCLs and textured geomembranes, common liner materials in North and South America. Tests were performed for a wide range of normal stress using the large dynamic direct shear machine. Monotonic tests consisted of a single shear thrust at a specified displacement rate. Cyclic shear tests consisted of back-and-forth shear motion at a specified frequency and displacement amplitude. This article presents some of these results to illustrate internal shear strength of NP GCLs under rapid loading conditions. Published strength data, as in this article, are suitable only for preliminary design purposes. Final design strengths must always be measured using project-specific tests.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 21 Nov 2013 09:14:58 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1266533</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Index Puncture Resistance of Geomembranes Using Various Protection Geosynthetics</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1254970</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The puncturing of geomembranes by stones is unfortunately not uncommon. In order to prevent its occurrence, various geosynthetics have been used as protection materials. Needle punched nonwoven geotextiles (of various unit weights), geonet drainage composites, and geosynthetic clay liners have been used, and all are evaluated in this laboratory puncture study. Results from three standardized puncture test methods (tapered, pin, and pyramid shaped end probes) are compared to one another. The results show that all geomembranes are susceptible to puncture, with increasing thickness providing some, but limited, improvement. Geotextiles clearly show improved puncture protection, and the improvement is in linear proportion to their increasing unit weights. Geonet drainage composites also show improvement essentially in proportion to the unit weights of the geotextiles affixed to the surfaces of the geonet core. Geosynthetic clay liners also provide protection, again in proportion to the unit weight of the associated geotextiles, particularly when the bentonite is hydrated.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 05 Jul 2013 14:10:21 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1254970</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Mineral Barriers against Natural Contamination from Excavated Rocks</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1244107</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The barrier performance of Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCL) containing Na-bentonite, zeolite (clinoptilolite), and ferrihydrate permeated with artificial Acid Rock Drainage (ARD) are reported in this study based on hydraulic conductivity tests. The hydraulic conductivity of GCL permeated with distilled water was 1.4 × 10-11 m/s and it increased by one order of magnitude when permeated with ARD. The hydraulic conductivity of zeolite permeated with water was 3.0 × 10-10 m/s and it increased 10 times when it was permeated with ARD. The hydraulic conductivity of ferrihydrate was 7.3 × 10-9 m/s for water permeation and this value remained constant after ARD permeation. Through chemical effluent analysis, it was observed that metals and metalloids (Fe, Al, Zn, Cu, Pb, and As) start leaching out the system after 5 to 10 pore volumes of flow (PVF). The metal retention order differed for each mineral. For bentonite it was Cu ≈ Al >As >> Pb >> Fe > Zn, while for zeolite, Al ≈ Cu > As > Fe > Zn > Pb, and for ferrihydrate, As > Al > Cu > Fe > Pb ≈ Zn. These three minerals appear to be good candidates for ARD treatment.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 21 Feb 2013 09:11:39 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1244107</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A Geocomposite Barrier for Hydrocarbon Containment in the Arctic</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/870967</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper describes the background and remediation steps that were taken to contain migration of a subsurface hydrocarbon contaminant plume at a site in the Canadian Arctic.  The authors describe the short-term barrier solution chosen: a composite liner consisting of a novel fluorine surface-treated high-density polyethylene geomembrane and a geosynthetic clay liner.  The authors discuss the design details, the selection criteria, and the challenges that were overcome to install the barrier system, which was designed to last for several years.  They report that a program of site monitoring is now underway, together with a parallel program of laboratory testing investigating the long-term effects of freeze-thaw, low temperatures, and contact with jet fuel on specimens of the barrier components.  Site monitoring results show that the barrier system is performing as planned three years after installation. Laboratory tests completed to date show that the geosynthetic barrier materials can be expected to maintain acceptably low rates of hydrocarbon diffusion and advection well beyond the original 3-year design life of the barrier system.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 24 Sep 2008 10:38:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/870967</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Application of Sliding Block Concept to Geosynthetic-Constructed Facilities</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/798064</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This chapter describes how the sliding block concept has found several applications in geotechnical earthquake engineering.  The chapter gives an overview of the application to geosynthetic-reinforced soil retaining wall and waste containment liner.  In both of the cases, the direct sliding mode of failure was considered and the equations to determine the seismic factor of safety, yield acceleration and permanent displacement are presented.  The set of equations for seismic design degenerates to those of static conditions when seismic coefficients are assumed as zero.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 30 Jan 2007 13:32:08 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/798064</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>BTEX Diffusion and Sorption for a Geosynthetic Clay Liner at Two Temperatures</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/761523</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The diffusion and sorption characteristics of a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) are examined for a group of volatile aromatic hydrocarbons: benzene, ethylbenzene, m&p-xylene, and o-xylene (BTEX) at two different temperatures.  It is shown that geotextile component of a GCL contributes to the sorption of hydrocarbons by the GCL.  While the partitioning coefficients of the BTEX compounds have the order m&p-xylene=ethylbenzene>o-xylene>toluene>benzene, the diffusion coefficients have the order benzene>toluene>ethylbenzene>m&p-xylene=o-xylene.  The reduction in diffusion and sorption coefficients with decreasing temperature have opposite effects in terms of the rate of contaminant movement through a GCL.  However, it is shown that the decrease in transport due to a reduced diffusion coefficient dominates and mass transport is reduced at lower temperature.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 21 Oct 2005 07:58:08 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/761523</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>EVALUATION OF SURFACE-RELATED PHENOMENA USING SEDIMENTATION TESTS</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/677577</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study attempts to evaluate the specific surface of fine-grained geomaterials using data collected during simple sedimentation tests.  It is assumed that cation exchange processes affect clay layer spacing without leading to complete physical separation, that is no delamination.  Based on an idealized parallel structure model, an analytical formulation of the problem is presented.  The sedimentation tests are used to assess the sensitivity of clay-water systems to environmental changes.  The parallel structure assumption is used as the basis for a simple framework to analyze the data from the sedimentation tests.  The slope of the relationship between the final sediment volume and the ionic concentration, plotted on a log-log scale, is related to the specific surface, the double layer thickness, and to the specific gravity.  A new parameter, the reactivity coefficient, where the reactivity coefficient equals the product of the specific surface, the double layer thickness, the specific gravity, and the mass density of water, is introduced to help identification of reactive clay-water systems.  High values of the reactivity coefficient identify systems that are sensitive to changes in pore fluid characteristics.  An experimental procedure is suggested to acquire relevant sedimentation parameters.  Data collected during sedimentation tests of kaolinite, bentonite, and disaggregated Pierre shale, Macos shale, a Queenston shale are used to verify the model.  Agreement between experimental data and the model suggests that this simple technique can be used to identify reactive shales in the field.  Other applications arise in tailing pond modeling, drilling mud management, and clay liner reliability assessment.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 15 Apr 2001 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/677577</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY TESTING OF GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINERS (GCLS) USING THE CONSTANT VOLUME METHOD</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/512903</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Hydraulic conductivity tests were conducted using open and constant-volume permeation systems on specimens from a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL). Two constant volume (CV) systems were employed: the falling-head constant-volume (FHCV) system and the constant-head constant-volume (CHCV) system. A conventional burette system using pressurized air was employed for the open system tests. The test results show that hydraulic conductivity tests can be conducted 30 or more times faster with the FHCV and CHCV systems than with an open system. Typically, the permeation portion of the FHCV and CHCV tests can be conducted in one-half a day. Slightly lower hydraulic conductivities are measured with the CV systems due to the slightly higher effective stress applied during testing with these systems. The CHCV system has several advantages over the FHCV system, including minimizing initial transient behavior, constant applied effective stress during testing, and simpler calculations.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 13 Dec 1999 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/512903</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>1998 SPECIFIER'S GUIDE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/475504</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This journal issue is a guide to companies that manufacture or offer services related to specific geosynthetics products.  The Industry Directory is an alphabetical listing of all firms found in the guide.  The Product, Applications, and Services Directories list the generic products, applications, and services offered by the companies included in the Industry Directory. Manufacturers or exclusive marketers of geosynthetic products have supplied data about the physical and mechanical properties of specific products that are presented in specification charts according to generic groupings of geotextiles, geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, drainage products, geogrids, geocells, and erosion control products.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 19 Jan 1998 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/475504</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>SHEAR STRENGTH OF REINFORCED GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINER. DISCUSSIONS AND CLOSURE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/474868</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Two discussions of a paper with the aforementioned title by R.B. Gilbert, F. Fernandez, and D.W. Horsfield, published in this journal (Volume 122, Number 4, April 1996), are presented. Discussers Bemben and Schulze raise concerns about flexure of the plywood backing plates under high normal loads applied with a piston and conclude that the authors employed a partial factor of safety of about two to the measured peak shear stresses to arrive at long-term safe design stress levels.  The remaining discussers concur with the authors that strengths measured at 43 mm of displacement do not necessarily correspond to residual strengths and present data from a large "pullout shear machine" showing that the strength continues to decrease beyond the displacement limit of a typical large-scale direct shear box. Discussions are followed by closure from the authors.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 16 Dec 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/474868</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>SELECTED FACTORS INFLUENCING GCL HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/577574</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The potential application of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) for secondary containment, highway construction, or situations requiring a hydraulic barrier for accidental spills raises questions regarding clay/organic liquid interaction and its potential effect on GCL hydraulic conductivity.  A series of confined swell and hydraulic conductivity tests were conducted on a needle-punched GCL with water as the hydrating medium and reference permeant.  Increases in the static confining stress and the needle-punching both restricted GCL swell and contributed to lower bulk GCL void ratios and hence significantly lower hydraulic conductivity values.  A well-defined, linear-log relationship is found between the bulk void ratio and hydraulic conductivity.  The number of pore volumes of permeant flow and consequently the level of chemical equilibrium is shown to have a significant effect on the hydraulic conductivity.  It is shown that there is a decrease in hydraulic conductivity for small amounts of permeant flow for all ethanol/water mixtures examined.  At- or near-chemical equilibrium, low-concentration mixtures (25% and 50% ethanol) continued to produce relative decreases in GCL hydraulic conductivity because of the increased viscosity of the permeant; however, highly concentrated mixtures (75 % and 100% ethanol) produced relative increases in GCL hydraulic conductivity arising from double layer contraction.  The implications are discussed.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 09 Nov 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/577574</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINERS, PART SIX: ION EXCHANGE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/575924</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper examines the properties of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) and explores the chemistry of bentonite:  how it is structured, how it works with GCL, and how it reacts to soil contents over time.  The chemical composition of the clay (bentonite) is directly related to the hydraulic conductivity (permeability) of the GCL.  High quality bentonites, which are used in GCLs, consist mainly of three-layer mineral montmorillonite of the smectite group.  Bentonites used for industrial applications are divided into sodium and calcium categories, depending upon which exchangeable cation is dominant.  Because of a higher-swelling capacity, the sodium-type bentonites are used in GCLs.  In addition to covering the chemistry of bentonite this paper discusses the differences between calcium, sodium, and polymer-enhanced bentonites.  The ion-exchange capability of bentonite is a natural process and, under typical use conditions and without covering the GCL with a geomembrane, it normally transforms original Na-bentonite into Ca-bentonite.  The result is a slight change in the GCL's permeability.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 28 Jul 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/575924</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINERS. PART ONE: AN OVERVIEW</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/470944</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) consist of factory manufactured rolls of bentonite placed between geotextiles of adhesively bonded to a geomembrane.  The geosynthetics provide manufacturers with the opportunity to stitch bond, needlepunch or adhesively bond the bentonite into a unit suitable for handling, transportation and placement as a composite barrier material.  Applications for GCLs in the environment, transportation and geotechnical engineering fields are numerous and rapid growing.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 24 Feb 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/470944</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINERS. PART TWO: HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/470947</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This article will first examine data on the hydraulic conductivity of Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GLCs) that are permeated with water and then will review the potential damaging effects of brines, solvents, petroleum products, acids and leachates.  The ability of GCLs to remain watertight when exposed to the rigors of environmental stresses such as freeze-thaw will be summarized and finally, some caveats and notes of caution will be offered.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 24 Feb 1997 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/470947</guid>
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