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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <link>https://trid.trb.org/</link>
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    <item>
      <title>An analysis of the prospects of ultra-long-haul airline operations using passenger demand data</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1757478</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Intercontinental air travel has been steadily growing in pre-COVID-19 times. The rise of the BoGu (Bosporus-Gulf) hubs in Abu Dhabi, Doha, Dubai and Istanbul and located centrally between Europe, Africa and Asia/Oceania, is a prime example for this trend. Hence, the BoGu network carriers have reached considerable market shares on several origin-destination markets. As a consequence, traditional network airlines affected by the competition from BoGu carriers are looking for ways to re-capture market shares. One example for this is the inauguration of new ultra-long-haul non-stop flights as a new business model. At least for city pairs with sufficient origin-destination demand, such flights render intermediate stops or transfers at hubs obsolete, allowing the carriers to offer their passengers significant travel time savings. This trend is supported by aircraft manufacturers, which have developed new, fuel-efficient aircraft, capable of carrying a commercially viable payload over distances impossible in previous decades. With these aircraft, direct services on city pairs can be offered, which previously required a transfer or fuel stop. The authors analyze the market characteristics and effects of ultra-long-haul operations offered recently and estimate the prospects of further ultra-long-haul operations in the future. Their analysis is based on origin-destination passenger demand levels on the level city pairs.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 16 Dec 2020 21:01:03 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1757478</guid>
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      <title>Airline Economics: an Empirical Analysis of Market Structure and Competition in the US Airline Industry</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1472584</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This book resents empirical research into the structure of airline city pair markets, revealing the mechanisms of competition between companies. Examining instances of US airline city pairs, the author posits that the industry is an oligopoly, wherein each airline market is dominated by no more than three carriers, without regard to the size of the market. The author illuminates how airlines prevent competition within these markets, and draws conclusions about competitive forces from his observations of the market structures. Uncovering some of the chief strategies of the airline industry, the book is relevant to industry managers, specialists, and academic economists.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 22 Mar 2018 12:00:15 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1472584</guid>
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      <title>What drives effective competition in the airline industry? An empirical model of city-pair market concentration</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1501474</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Market concentration is a widely recognized metric for assessing effective competition, as it provides a quantification of the relative success of large, mid-sized and smaller firms in the battle for consumers. Concentration has been a public policy issue in the airline industry since deregulation, due to the long-standing airport dominance by major carriers, which is a concern that is recurrently intensified by merger announcements. This paper develops an empirical model to examine the evolution of concentration in the airline markets. The authors analyze the case of the Brazilian airline industry, in which the two major carriers acquired a combined market share of more than 90% in the late 2000s and have experienced a sharp reversion since then. They test hypotheses regarding the association of market concentration with market size and service quality, as well as the impacts of vertical relationships after airport privatization. The authors' results suggest that the entry-attraction effect of market size more than compensates for the economies-of-density effect, while the vertical product differentiation created by the strategic investment in capacity is a key driver of concentration in the airline industry.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 23 Feb 2018 16:40:17 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1501474</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>The spatial scope of airline competition</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1455227</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The authors investigate whether alternative city- or airport pairs are viable substitutes and the extent to which they impact airline competition between the United Kingdom and continental Europe. To this end, they employ and measure airlines’ best responses in equilibrium. Using monthly airline-route seat capacity levels and two stage least-squares dummy-variables regression models, the authors estimate airlines’ strategic reaction to the competitors’ capacity levels, including competitors on other routes. They show that airlines’ relevant market extends beyond the airport-pair level. Strategic reactions depend on airline type, but all airline types have a similar strategic reaction towards high speed rail.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 27 Feb 2017 17:12:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1455227</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Evaluation of Intermediate Stop Operations in Long-haul Flights</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1370570</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Recent crises - both economic and geopolitical - and the rise of new competitors in the form of low-cost carriers and Middle East carriers have put a heavy strain on the profitability of traditional legacy airlines worldwide. Many airlines are struggling to survive and are looking for ways to cut their operational costs.  Continuously increasing fuel prices further contribute to the financial difficulties, and although airlines (and aircraft manufacturers alike) have put a significant effort on reducing the operational fuel consumption, fuel still accounts for approximately 35% of airlines’ operating expenses. Therefore many airlines seek new ways to further reduce the operational costs through improved fuel efficiency.  One of the less self-evident methods to potentially significantly reduce the total operational fuel consumption is the introduction of intermediate refueling stops. Previous studies have already shown that operating existing aircraft on a long-haul flight with one or two intermediate stops can lead to potential fuel savings varying from 5% to 25% by reducing the additional fuel burn on long-haul flights referred to as transport loss. On the other hand, the concept of intermediate stop operations will also affect the operational costs through higher landing fees, an increased required maintenance effort, a longer total flight time and different crew costs. As previous studies have not addressed the additional costs or benefits of intermediate stop operations, this study aims to identify the total potential of the concept.  For this purpose, a software tool was developed to analyze individual long-haul origin-destination pairs to identify the optimal operation: either direct or including an intermediate stop. Within the tool crew cost, maintenance cost and local fuel prices are determined for simulated flights according to typical operating procedures. A Dijkstra's algorithm then selects the most suitable and cost-efficient airport from a large database if an intermediate stop proves a viable option for the city-pair.  A number of case studies has shown that although in all cases intermediate stops proved beneficial to reduce the total fuel burn, reducing the total operating cost depended highly on city-pair specific conditions, mainly the local fuel prices, changed crew-composition and wind direction. Still, the case studies do indicate that the concept of intermediate stop operations may offer significant cost reductions for many typical long-haul flights across the world, and could prove a viable concept to gain a competitive advantage for specific airlines and routes.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 28 Oct 2015 15:11:58 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1370570</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Hubs at risk: Exposure of Europe's largest hubs to competition on transfer city pairs</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1368095</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Hubs are airports used by airlines as transfer points to get passengers to their destinations. Each of the five largest European hubs – Amsterdam, Charles de Gaulle, Frankfurt, Heathrow, and Madrid – is closely associated with one former national flag carrier. Some concerns exist in Europe that the expansion of the Gulf carriers with their hubs in Dubai, Abu Dhabi and Doha threatens the existence of European hubs regarding transfer city pairs that include at least one long-haul leg. The authors' paper examines the actual exposure to competition by combining airline schedules data with methodology to measure competitive transfer connections. They provide the percentage of the transfer city pairs of the five largest European hubs that is exposed to competition. Further, they identify the main competitors to each of these hubs. One important result of their paper is that despite the increasing market share of Gulf carriers, the main competition for transfer traffic is still among the five largest European hubs, with Munich and Istanbul being another two strong contenders. Hence, their paper puts into perspective the competitive risk posed by Gulf carriers and their hubs.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 25 Sep 2015 16:30:47 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1368095</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>The economics and geography of regional airline services in six countries</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1362200</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Do the determinants of service and pricing on “regional” routes – linking towns and smaller cities to main trunk routes and/or to each other – differ from the established results from the literature? The authors study all flights (about 3000) on all regional routes (about 250) with scheduled airline service from one of about 130 regional towns or cities, in regional airline markets in six countries: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, and a sample of three U.S. states which closely resemble the other regions studied. For each flight the authors have observations on up to five prices offered at different times before flight date. They also have equipment type and social-economic data. Overall, their results give qualified support to the standard gravity model of the extent of service between city pairs, though with two interesting differences: operators on regional routes have greater flexibility in the size of aircraft they can deploy, which results in a finer-grained variability of service offerings and, the presence of competition on regional routes has a large effect on the total supply of seats. We are able to successfully estimate a well-specified airfare model, which shows strong effects of competition on prices, quite substantial intertemporal price discrimination, and interesting differences between regional and main trunk route pricing.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 31 Jul 2015 18:01:03 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1362200</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Economic and environmental optimization of flight trajectories connecting a city-pair</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1308945</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper describes the development of a multi-phase/multi-criteria trajectory optimization framework that has been conceived to support the synthesis of green mission profiles that will allow aircraft to fly optimum flight paths with the lowest possible noise and emissions. The proposed multi-phase/multi-criteria framework is not only suitable to formulate trajectory optimization problems in which noise, emissions, or global warming effects can be simultaneously considered, but also provides the possibility to implement air traffic management constraints that apply to certain flight stages. A case study involving a trip from Amsterdam Airport Schiphol to Munich Franz Josef Strauss International Airport is presented to illustrate the synthesis of green trajectories and to demonstrate the potential for improving the environmental footprint. The optimization results bear out that optimizing with respect to noise can be very rewarding in terms of reducing the local noise impact, without significantly affecting the overall flight-economic performance.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 29 May 2014 11:45:50 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1308945</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Economic and environmental optimization of flight trajectories connecting a city-pair</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1305203</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper describes the development of a multi-phase/multi-criteria trajectory optimization framework that has been conceived to support the synthesis of green mission profiles that will allow aircraft to fly optimum flight paths with the lowest possible noise and emissions. The proposed multi-phase/multi-criteria framework is not only suitable to formulate trajectory optimization problems in which noise, emissions, or global warming effects can be simultaneously considered, but also provides the possibility to implement air traffic management constraints that apply to certain flight stages. A case study involving a trip from Amsterdam Airport Schiphol to Munich Franz Josef Strauss International Airport is presented to illustrate the synthesis of green trajectories and to demonstrate the potential for improving the environmental footprint. The optimization results bear out that optimizing with respect to noise can be very rewarding in terms of reducing the local noise impact, without significantly affecting the overall flight-economic performance.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 28 May 2014 15:24:04 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1305203</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>An analysis of the competition that impinges on the Milan–Rome intercity passenger transport link</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1304765</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper presents a simulation based on the discrete choice model, and a limited set of data to analyse the passenger market on the Milan–Rome intercity transport link. Considered in the analysis are market shares of both incumbents and new entrants, as well as consumer surplus and environmental costs. The link, which is the second largest intra-European connection, has been characterized by a low degree of competition in both rail and air transport services. The entry of new rail and air operators in 2012, however, will likely reshape market characteristics. The current paper argues the following: (i) most of the benefit in consumer surplus will stem from the introduction of competition in high speed rail; (ii) increased connections will result in increased environmental costs, which will partially offset the larger consumer surplus; and (iii) a reduction in the difference between airline and rail companies involving the costs of infrastructure access and security could lead to more fair forms of competition between airline and rail companies, but it generates a worst environment state.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 14 Apr 2014 10:10:21 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1304765</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Demand Forecasting for Domestic Air Transportation in Turkey</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1301141</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Accuracy in estimating air transport demand is a key element while an aviation company is planning its short term or long term business plan regardless of its status, being an incumbent or a startup company. Domestic Air Travel Industry in Turkey has dramatically grown in recent years especially after the deregulation which resulted in the renewal of air transportation policy in 2003. However, there is no relevant scientific research in the literature to analyze the determining factors on air travel demand for domestic market by city pair level in Turkey. A semi-logarithmic regression model is generated in order to estimate the domestic air travel demand in means of number of passengers carried per city pair. Airline passenger data of 2011 out of 42 served cities in Turkey are used to establish the model. Then, 2010 data are used to test the prediction performance of the model. Accuracy level is found to be significantly successful on estimating passenger demand for any domestic city pair. Due to its city pair basis and acceptable level of accuracy, the estimation model can be utilized in many areas of aviation industry, such as determining flight frequency on a route, forecasting the size of air passenger traffic for potential new airports or potential new routes etc.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 20 Mar 2014 13:39:25 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1301141</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Estimating potential long-haul air passenger traffic in national networks containing two or more dominant cities</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1245859</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In this paper, the authors build an analytical framework to estimate potential passenger traffic for new long-haul routes originating in secondary airports within national airport systems where a main hub concentrates most of the transcontinental traffic. The results are particularly important in the context of air space liberalization, which is generating opportunities for new city-pair traffic. If airport and airline managers can correctly value route alternatives, they can make better decisions concerning alliances, expansion plans, or the development of their hub-and-spoke networks.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 22 Apr 2013 09:39:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1245859</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The Emergence of the “Super-Commuter”</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1141473</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The "super-commuter" is a person who works in the central county of a given metropolitan area, but lives beyond the boundaries of that metropolitan area, commuting long distance by air, rail, car, bus, or a combination of modes.  The changing structure of the workplace, advances in telecommunications, and the global pattern of economic life have made the super-commuter a new force in transportation.  This paper examines this trend.  Some of its key findings are as follows:  (1) Across the U.S., city labor sheds (where workers live) are expanding rapidly and super-commuter growth rates are far outpacing workforce growth rates. (2) As of 2009, super-commuters accounted for the greatest percent of the workforce in both Dallas and Harris (Houston) counties in Texas, at approximately 13%.  (3) Several cities’ super-commuting rates stand out with exceptional growth, including Dallas-Ft. Worth to Houston, Austin and San Antonio to Houston, Northern California to Los Angeles, and Boston to Manhattan. (4) Super-commuters across the United States tend to be young (under 29 years old) and are more likely to be middle class than the average worker. (5) Future planning decisions should consider metropolitan regions’ growth due to the increase of super-commuting and resultant inter-connectedness; while “twin cities” of the past typically sat 40 miles apart, the new “twin cities” stretch 100-200 miles away from one another, with ever-growing inter-commutes.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 22 Jun 2012 16:35:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1141473</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>High-speed rail and air transport competition in Western Europe: A supply-oriented perspective</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1116958</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Increasingly air transport growth raises the question of its impact on the environment. Public authorities and researchers are relying more and more on high-speed trains (HSTs), whose efficiency is supposed to lead to a modal shift from airplanes. However, most transport studies focus on the evolution of demand rather than supply, although it is basically the latter that determines environmental damage. In light of this fact, this paper aims to compare the overall dynamics in the supply of air transport in Europe compared to the HST supply and to examine empirically five city-pairs. The development of high-speed rail remains limited compared to the increase of air services. For a given city-pair, the decline in the number of flights depends on various conditions, including length of the HST journey and the strategies adopted by the airlines. Some carriers reduce their supply in terms of the number of seats but increase the number of flights in order to compete more effectively with the HSTs. Moreover, the competition between low-cost airlines and HSTs should be kept in mind and re-examined in a few years.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 30 Sep 2011 07:39:12 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1116958</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A passenger demand model for air transportation in a hub-and-spoke network</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1114574</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This paper develops an air passenger model that deals with city-pair demand generation and demand assignment in a single framework. Using publicly available and regularly collected panel data, the model captures both time series and cross-sectional variation of air travel demand. The empirical analysis finds that pattern of correlations among alternatives can be described by a three-level nested logit model. Fare, frequency, flight time, direct routing, on-time performance, income, and market distance have significant effects on air demand. Correcting for the problem of endogenous air fares using instrumental variables yields more plausible estimates of price sensitivity and value of time.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 14 Sep 2011 11:12:32 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1114574</guid>
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