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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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      <title>Cosmic Radiation Reliability Analysis for Aircraft Power Electronics</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2364782</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Cosmic ray (CR)-induced failures are a major concern for the electronic system reliability of airborne and space systems. Power system voltages on aerospace platforms are on a steady upward trend. High-voltage power converters suffer from single event burnout (SEB) failures caused by CRs. The established standards propose a scaling factor based on measured background galactic CRs (GCRs) intensity at operating altitude to apply de-rating factors. The radiation environment in the atmosphere can be increased due to the cascading of primary solar energetic particles (SEPs) during solar eruptions. In this work, the altitude profile of the radiation environment is simulated using a GEANT4 Monte Carlo code. The failure rates due to both background GCRs and SEPs are quantitatively evaluated. Further to the known influence of geomagnetic shielding of CRs, the geographical distribution of CRs at flight altitudes of 10 km is also presented. The estimated CR intensity can then be combined with experimentally measured failure rate data to predict the impact on the reliability of power converters, giving a new level of accuracy in the modeling of such failure mode in more electric aircraft (MEA) applications. It is shown for the first time in the scientific literature by using experimental data and state-of-the-art models, that the SEPs storms fluxes vastly exceed the recommended standard and constitute a risk for the power electronics reliability.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 16 May 2024 16:34:30 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2364782</guid>
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      <title>Approximating Shielding Effects on Galactic Cosmic Radiation Effective Dose Rate Calculations During Extreme Altitude and Sub-Orbital Flights Using CARI-7/7A</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1569689</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The dominant source of ionizing radiation in the aerospace environment is galactic cosmic radiation (GCR). Traditionally, calculations of exposure rates for vehicle occupants in aircraft have not included vehicle structure; while in spacecraft, vehicle structure is considered without atmosphere. This report describes modifications applicable to CARI-7 and CARI-7A to allow inclusion of the effects of vehicle structure on calculations of effective dose rate from GCR throughout a suborbital mission in a lightly shielded vehicle (<20 g/cm2). Required coefficients and an example of the technique are provided for aluminum shielding. While results are considerably different than if shielding were entirely neglected, they vary by less than 8% from the simple approximation of 1:1 substitution of additional atmospheric depth for aluminum.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 04 Dec 2018 10:09:34 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1569689</guid>
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      <title>Cosmic Radiation - A Legal and Medical Issue in Aviation</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1136535</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Research into the effects of different effects of radiation on human health has only recently been brought to light while the events in Hiroshima and Nagasaki have revived the interest in the research into the effects of ionizing radiation on organisms. Man has to live with radiation regardless of the risk. Protection efficiency is related to proper understanding of dangers coming from radiation and radiological contamination and protection methods. Knowledge of radiation protection is an important tool in the battle for survival on our planet. The public today still seems insufficiently informed when it comes to hazards brought about by natural sources of radiation. Based on the published results, it seems that the cosmic radiation hazard to passengers in contemporary air transport is nonexistent. Nevertheless, for some air crew categories (frequent intercontinental flights) it is possible that annual absorbed doses are quite close to the doses absorbed by workers handling radiation sources, even the possibility of exceeding the prescribed levels is not inconceivable.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 16 Apr 2012 09:16:09 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1136535</guid>
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      <title>Assessment of occupational cosmic radiation exposure of flight attendants using questionnaire data</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1120798</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Due to routine exposure to cosmic radiation, female flight attendants may have a higher risk of breast and other cancers than the general population. Occupational cosmic radiation exposure of a cohort of female flight attendants was estimated as part of a forthcoming study of breast and other cancer incidence. Questionnaire data were collected from living female cohort members who were formerly employed as flight attendants with Pan American World Airways. Included in the data were the following: airline at which the flight attendant was employed, assigned domicile, number of block hours and commuter segments flown per month, and start and end dates for employment at domicile. Daily absorbed and effective doses using a time-weighted dose rate specific to the domicile and/or work history era combined with self-reported work history information were assigned to questionnaire respondents. Completed work history questionnaires were received from 5898 living cohort members. Mean employment time as a flight attendant was 7.4 years at Pan Am and 12 years in total. Estimated mean annual effective dose from all sources of occupational cosmic radiation exposure was 2.5 ± 1.0 mSv, with a mean career dose of 30 mSv. Although annual effective doses were similar to doses assessed for other flight attendant cohorts, questionnaire-based cumulative doses assessed in this study were on average higher than those assessed for other flight attendant cohorts using company-based records. The inclusion of dose from work at other airlines and commuter flights, which was made possible by using questionnaire data, accounts for the difference.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 27 Oct 2011 14:43:32 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1120798</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>WHAT AIRCREWS SHOULD KNOW ABOUT THEIR OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/696631</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Aircrews are occupationally exposed to ionizing radiation, principally from galactic cosmic radiation.  A main source of galactic cosmic radiation is believed to be supernovae.  On infrequent occasions, the sun contributes to the ionizing radiation received during air travel.  Ionizing radiation consists of subatomic particles that, on interacting with an atom, can cause the atom to lose one or more orbital electrons or even break apart its nucleus.  Such events occurring in body tissues may lead to health problems.  For aircrews, and their children irradiated in utero, the principal health concern is a small increase in the lifetime risk of fatal cancer.  For both of these groups, exposure to ionizing radiation also leads to a risk of genetic defects in future generations.  The FAA recommends limits for aircrews in their occupational exposure to ionizing radiation and provides computer software for estimating the amount of galactic cosmic radiation received on a flight.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 15 Mar 2004 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/696631</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>A STUDY OF THE CAPABILITY FOR RAPID WARNINGS OF SOLAR FLARE RADIATION HAZARDS TO AIRCRAFT. PART I. FORECASTS AND WARNINGS OF SOLAR FLARE RADIATION HAZARDS. PART II. AN FAA POLAR FLIGHT SOLAR COSMIC RADIATION FORECAST/WARNING COMMUNICATION SYSTEM STUDY.</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/51054</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The first part of the report provides background information on the occurrence of solar activity and the consequent sporadic production of electromagnetic and particle emissions from the sun. A summary is given of the current procedures for the forecasting of solar activity together with procedures used to verify these forecasts as currently available. A summary of current forecasting of radiation hazards as provided in support of the Concorde SST program is also given. The second part of the report describes a forecast message distribution system developed in conjunction with solar cosmic radiation forecasts and warnings of the Space Environment Laboratory of NOAA for the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Office of Aviation Medicine. The study analyzes the currently available and future aeronautical telecommunication system facilities to determine an optimum system to distribute forecasts to the preflight planning centers in the international flight service stations for polar-flying subsonic and supersonic transport (SST) type aircraft. Also recommended for the system are timely and reliable distribution of warnings to individual in-flight aircraft in polar areas by the responsible air traffic control authority.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 20 Sep 2002 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/51054</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>THE AIRLINER CABIN ENVIRONMENT: AIR QUALITY AND SAFETY</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/647649</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Under Public Law 98-466, Congress stipulated that the National Academy of Sciences enter into a contract with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).  The Academy was asked to determine whether such aspects of cabin air as the quantity of outside air, the quality of onboard air, the extent of pressurization, the characteristics of humidification, the presence of cosmic radiation, contaminants (such as bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms), and pollutants (such as environmental tobacco smoke, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and ozone) could be responsible for health problems in the long or short run; to recommend remedies for problems discovered; and to outline the safety precautions necessary to protect passengers in event of in-flight fires, which produce smoke and fumes.  Accordingly, the Committee on Airliner Cabin Air Quality was established in the National Research Council's Commission on Life Sciences.  This report summarizes the findings of the Committee's 18-month study of relevant issues.  The investigation covered five general subjects: Cabin air quality - including potential health effects of reduced ventilation and of contamination by chemicals, microorganisms, other allergens, tobacco smoke, and ozone; Cabin environment - health effects of reduced pressure and of cosmic radiation; Emergency procedures - control of fires and toxic fumes, use of emergency breathing equipment, and adequacy of emergency instruction given passengers; Regulations - regulations established by U.S. and foreign agencies; and Records - status and adequacy of medical statistics on air travel, of records on airline maintenance, and of records on operating procedures.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 09 Mar 2000 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/647649</guid>
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      <title>A CATALOG OF PERTURBING INFLUENCES ON STRATOSPHERIC OZONE, 1955-1975</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/82739</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Stratospheric ozone depends on the stratospheric concentrations of oxides of nitrogen (NOx), oxides of hydrogen (HOx), chlorine and bromine compounds (ClX and BrX), as well as on the flux of solar ultraviolet radiation, the stratospheric temperature, and the parameters of stratospheric dynamics. There exist worldwide data on the total burden of atmospheric ozone since about 1955, and for comparison of these data with calculations using two-dimensional radiative/chemical/dynamics computer codes, a list is needed and is here presented of all major time-varying perturbations that have been suggested over the time frame 1955-1975. Detailed consideration is given to the following: atmospheric nuclear explosions, galactic cosmic rays, solar proton events, relativistic (or energetic) electron precipitation, major volcanic eruptions, halocarbons (fluoro-, chloro-, and bromocarbons), fertilizer manufacture, and other industrial nitrogen fixation. For sources injected directly into the stratosphere, the time-, altitude-, and latitude-dependent source strengths are listed, while for the ground-based sources the time- and latitude-dependent production and atmospheric emission rates are given. Time variations of solar UV (which represent perhaps the most important single perturbation) and of stratospheric temperature, and possible variations in stratospheric dynamics are also discussed. (Author)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 11 May 1979 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/82739</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>RADIOLOGICAL HAZARDS TO AIR COMMERCE</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/77800</link>
      <description><![CDATA[A survey of existing literature concerning radiological hazards to air commerce has been completed. A preliminary assessment of three major sources of potentially significant ionizing radiation has indicated that although some data are lacking, no actual danger to either passengers or crew has been documented. Cosmic radiation from galactic sources represents a relatively well understood and easily predictable phenomenon. Solar flare activity and nuclear testing episodes, however, are infrequent events which require an ongoing effort to maintain a current understanding of health and safety related issues. (Author)]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 13 Jan 1979 00:00:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/77800</guid>
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