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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
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    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <item>
      <title>Strengthening the implementation of International Maritime Organization regulatory frameworks and the responsibilities of a landlocked state as the flag state: A case study of Mongolia</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2676092</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides equal rights to landlocked states to engage in maritime activities, registering ships and becoming involved in international shipping. However, exercising these rights implies taking on equal responsibilities as coastal states, which introduces unique challenges for landlocked states. The study will take a case study of Mongolia to evaluate the ability of landlocked states to meet their duty as flag states under the International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulatory frameworks. Based on domestic laws of Mongolia, Member State Audit Scheme (IMSAS) reports, and Port State Control reports, the study cites legal, institutional, and enforcement barriers to compliance with IMO conventions. The study indicates that the capabilities of Mongolia to exercise effective flag state control are limited by its maritime infrastructure, lack of trained personnel, and dependence on external service providers. Nonetheless, the case also proves that landlocked states can increase their efforts to be responsible maritime state with legal framework reforms, capacity-building efforts, and enhanced collaboration with international partners. The case of the reform of Mongolia highlights both the necessity of national transformation and the support mechanisms needed to make landlocked states equitable participants in world maritime governance.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 17 Jun 2026 12:23:23 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2676092</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Study on Flag State Responsibilities and ‘Open Registers’ for Vessel Registration</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2657018</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The main objective of this study is to provide the contracting authority and the European Commission (in particular the Directorate General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries) with an up-to-date analysis of the economic dynamics and the effects of the use of so-called “open registers” for sea-going vessels (often closely related to “flags of convenience”). It also compares open registers used as flags of convenience with national (closed) registers, highlighting their differences and implications. The study responds to the EU’s strategic priorities outlined in the June 2022 international ocean governance agenda. The Joint Communication of the Commission and the High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy on international ocean governance, specifically identified the fulfilment of flag States responsibilities by those acting as open registers as one of the priorities for the EU International Ocean Governance agenda. It announced the Commission’s intention to launch a “study exposing the models of operators using open registers and the various actors involved in the functioning of these registers, as well as proposing solutions to address problems identified”. The study, therefore, aims to assess the drivers and effects associated with open registers used as flags of convenience. Recognising the complex, often opaque landscape — characterised by limited transparency, biased industry reports, and sector-specific sensitivities — this analysis focuses on understanding their impacts on economic, social, environmental and security policy objectives of the European Union (EU) and relevant international frameworks. The use of the term "open registers" in this document does not imply or suggest in any way any substandard practices by EU Member States that utilise open registers. The term is used without any judgment or assumption about the quality, integrity, or effectiveness of the practices implemented by these Member States.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 16 Apr 2026 13:54:14 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2657018</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Evaluating Spatial Inequities in Multimodal Accessibility to Convenience Stores: A 3SFCA-Based Study of Jongno-gu, Seoul</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2597063</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study investigates spatial justice in convenience store accessibility by examining how travel modes, mobility conditions, and spatial structures jointly shape service equity. Drawing on the “capability space” framework, it first constructs a behavior-based accessibility measure using the Three-Step Floating Catchment Area (3SFCA) method and credit card transaction data, capturing individuals’ actual ability to access retail services. This empirically grounded indicator is then analyzed alongside socio-spatial and demographic variables to uncover disparities rooted in capability differences and institutional structures. Owing to Jongno-gu’s compact urban form, walking showed the highest equity. In contrast, cycling and driving revealed pronounced gaps in accessibility, which is attributable to uneven resource allocation and transportation infrastructure. While walking provides relatively equitable access overall, it does not serve older adults and residents living in peripheral neighborhoods. Infrastructural discontinuities and mode-user mismatches constrain cycling accessibility, whereas driving expands spatial coverage but reinforces structural advantages for car-owning households. These findings underscore how transport modes, land use patterns, and population characteristics interact to produce unequal service landscapes. Accordingly, this study presents an integrated framework that operationalizes spatial justice through behavior-based accessibility assessment. By connecting actual service use with socio-spatial disparities, it enables targeted diagnosis of capability inequalities in retail provision. Beyond methodological contribution, the findings offer actionable insights for equitable and inclusive mobility planning in dense, aging urban contexts.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 20 Nov 2025 17:07:20 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2597063</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Autonomous ships and flag state: challenges and opportunities in international maritime law</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2598271</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Autonomous surface vessels (MASS) are a disruptive innovation in maritime technology, but their deployment poses significant legal challenges in the field of international law of the sea. This article examines, within the framework of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the exercise of jurisdiction and effective flag state control over MASS, especially in situations where the Remote Operations Centre (ROC) is outside the territorial jurisdiction of the flag state. Through a doctrinal and normative analysis of existing international instruments and recent International Maritime Organisation proposals, the main regulatory gaps are identified and the challenges arising from the absence of physical crew and the decentralisation of operational control are assessed. The results show that these circumstances hinder the application of the genuine link required by UNCLOS, generate uncertainty in the attribution of responsibilities and complicate compliance with the flag state's international obligations. It is concluded that the regulatory framework needs to be adapted and clarified to ensure the legal and operational security of MASS, strengthen oversight mechanisms and guarantee the protection of state interests and the integrity of the international maritime system in the face of the growing integration of these technologies.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 07 Nov 2025 11:30:16 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2598271</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Impact of anti-tax avoidance rules on factors influencing the choice of registry for the self-owned vessels of the shipping lines</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2344538</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Shipping lines avoid tax burdens and policy requirements by registering their self-owned vessels in flag of convenience (FOC) countries and establishing subsidiaries in those countries. However, since the international tax system has been increasingly focused on substance, coherence, and transparency, the anti-tax avoidance rules may have affected the choice of registry for shipping lines. Based on the 900-ship registry data of the top 25 liners across 26 flag states over the period 2008 to 2019, this paper uses conditional logit and mixed logit models to examine the effect of anti-tax avoidance rules on the choice of registry for shipping lines. In this regard, the results indicate that introducing country-by-country reporting requirements and a common reporting standard will reduce the probability of shipping lines registering to flag in those countries. On the other hand, after imposing anti-tax avoidance rules, liners are more willing to register flags in countries with higher tax rates. The results of a regional analysis show that better tax performance exerts an adverse effect on flag choice of European shipping lines; however, it has the opposite effect on Asian shipping lines.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 01 Mar 2024 13:38:23 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2344538</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Freight rate volatility and flag-switching decisions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1982955</link>
      <description><![CDATA[An important decision facing shipping firms is the choice between an open- or national ship registry. We empirically test the predictions of Kavussanos and Tsekrekos (in: Cullinane (ed) The international handbook of maritime economics, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, pp 47–62, 2011), who formulate the decision to change a vessel’s flag as an optimal switching problem, and predict that shipping companies register vessels in open registries in periods of high volatility in freight rates, and return to national registers in periods of low volatility. We use a random sample of 560 bulk carriers built between 1999 and 2017 and, following Luo et al. (Maritime Policy and Management 44:603–622, 2017), we employ a duration model (Cox proportional hazards model). In it, the hazard rate of time until a flag change is a function of vessel type, taxation, inspection rates, and a proxy of volatility in freight rates. Our empirical findings suggest that increased freight rate volatility has a positive effect on the hazard of flag change from a national flag to an open registry, and increased freight rate volatility is associated with a short time interval to (and a high probability of) a flag change. These findings should be of interest to shipowners and flag administrators, since they imply that in times of high volatility in freight rates, frequent flag changes from national flags to open registries are observed.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 29 Aug 2022 09:27:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1982955</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Flags of Convenience in Aviation – Myth or Reality?</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1986362</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The purpose of this paper is to establish whether the concept of “flags of convenience,” which is commonly used to refer to maritime vessels registered in countries maintaining so-called “open registries,” has transferred to the field of aviation.  This question has become somewhat relevant recently in light of the U.S. Department of Transportation decision to award foreign air carrier permits to two subsidiaries of Norwegian Air Shuttle ASA.  Part I of the paper seeks to explore the origins of the flags of convenience phenomenon in maritime law, as well as its impact on the international shipping industry.  Additionally, a necessary distinction is made between mare liberum or freedom of the seas on one hand, and the freedoms of the air and existing Open Skies agreements between States on the other.  Part II focuses on the determinations made by DOT in granting foreign air carrier permits to NAS’ subsidiaries and whether these instances indicate a trend toward a “race to the bottom” by States wishing to attract foreign air carriers to establish subsidiaries in their territory.  Based on the aforementioned observations, the paper concludes with a determination as to the likelihood of flags of convenience taking hold in aviation and the possible side effects of such an occurrence.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 27 Jun 2022 11:58:50 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1986362</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Why are convenience stores clustered? The reasons behind the clustering of similar shops and the effect of increased competition</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1942881</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Similar stores, when clustered in urban locations, often close down; many scholars have explained this phenomenon using Hotelling’s theory. However, empirically, several studies have found that competition between rivals causes stores to move away from each other, exhibiting a repulsive force. By contrast, other studies insist that customers strongly drive the agglomeration of retail rivals. This study chooses convenience stores as an experimental subject to investigate why similar shops cluster in an area and to assess the results of increasing levels of competition. By combining various types of big-data sources including convenience stores’ revenues, diverse consumer factors, and built environments, this study found that retail shops cluster to earn revenue by exploiting the consumer purchasing capacity in an area. This benefit, however, disappears when the competition increases beyond a certain threshold. By controlling for the numbers of pedestrians, residents, and employees, this study is the first to explain why similar shops cluster in urban districts and to show the limitations of retail rivals’ clustering.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 13 May 2022 16:31:01 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1942881</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Profiling Malaysian ship registration and seafarers for streamlining future Malaysian shipping governance</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1889229</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In the globalised maritime transport sector, Malaysian ships and local seafarers play a crucial role in the development of the country’s economy. Therefore, this paper examines Malaysia’s ratification of international maritime conventions, its authorisation of classification societies and its maritime education training centres that have become key elements in influencing local ship registration and the production of seafarers. This paper analyses the current Malaysian ship registration and seafarers, including the existing number of seafarers that are engaged on board Malaysian and foreign ships. In this paper, the authors present the JALIN (ship registration data) and SDPx (seafarers’ data) systems application, which are developed by the Marine Department Malaysia as data sources, and a descriptive analysis of data using MS-Excel 2010 and Minitab 19. As a result, this paper analysed the Malaysian ship registration and seafarers for streamlining future Malaysian shipping governance in order to identify current potentials and barriers. In addition, this paper provides vital information for Malaysian government strategies concerning seafarers’ management in streamlining future national shipping governance. In addition, this result can serve as big data information to develop effective measures catering to the needs of the Malaysian shipping industry and assist policymakers to make decisions.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 28 Feb 2022 09:53:03 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1889229</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>From The Flag State Duty For Inspections To The Remote Port State Control. The Necessity For Distant Controls</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1877474</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Inspections are aiming at maritime safety. This paper describes the central role of flag states in controlling the vessels that are registered at their national register. However, the effectiveness of the inspections is mainly based on the Port State Control (PSC) inspections that are following the needs of the digital era introducing the remote controls.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 29 Dec 2021 14:43:17 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1877474</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Game model for a new inspection regime of port state control under different reward and punishment conditions</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1893106</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Port state control is regarded as the “last safety net” for maintaining maritime safety and environmental pollution prevention standards for foreign ships calling at or anchoring off international ports. Owing to limited resources, port states select and inspect ships that are more likely to be substandard under their inspection regimes and then record and publish the performance of shipowners and flag states. To encourage ships to comply with standards during subsequent inspections and improve new inspection regimes, the authors develop a game model analysing the strategies of port states, flag states, and shipowners. They then confirm the Nash equilibrium of the pure and mixed strategies. Subsequently, they investigate the influence of different reward and punishment conditions on flag states and shipowners and generate the following three results: first, differentiating flag state performance is crucial for port states to provide appropriate punishments or rewards to improve ship safety; second, reputation rewards have stronger impacts than reputation punishments for flag states; and third, reputation rewards or punishments from port states have little influence on shipowners’ strategies, since shipowners are much more concerned about their profits.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 08 Dec 2021 11:22:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1893106</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Cruise Ships, COVID-19, and Port/Flag State Obligations</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1881771</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed additional weaknesses of the already troubling “flag of convenience” practices under international law; the passenger cruise industry was especially impacted. Most cruise ships under distress from the pandemic received little aid from their flag states, and many vessels were denied entry into ports of nonflag states (regardless of whether an outbreak had been documented onboard). States and vessels lacked clear guidance around their rights and responsibilities under the extraordinary circumstances, resulting in a less efficient response to a dangerous situation. This article reviews the current status of international law concerning port and flag state duties to distressed vessels, and suggests the creation of flag state medical liability to help clarify decision-making during future health crises.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 29 Oct 2021 15:40:10 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1881771</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The similarity analysis of Port State Control regimes based on the performance of flag states</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1698018</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Port State Control inspections play a paramount role in the enhancement of maritime safety. Port State Control regimes were established to ensure sustainability of Port State Control inspections. There are a total of 10 Port State Control regimes. Although all of these Port State Control regimes inspect foreign flag ships calling on their ports in compliance with international maritime safety and pollution regulations, still different implementations exist between these Port State Control regimes. According to the detentions, 73% of flag states have different performances in Port State Control regimes. However, the uniformity in inspections and detentions is quite important in the improvement of the effectiveness of Port State Control inspections in the world. This study aims at assessing the similarities between the Port State Control regimes on the basis of the performance of flag states as regards their Port State Control inspections. The similarities of the Port State Control regimes are analyzed employing the hierarchical clustering method using the detention and deficiency rates similarity matrices, the risk levels similarity matrices of flag states, and the combined similarity matrix. Accordingly, similarities between Port State Control regimes are discussed relative to each other and the Paris memorandum of understanding.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 26 May 2020 10:43:49 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1698018</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Current Trends of Protectionism in Shipping Industry</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1641769</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The purpose of this paper is to systematize the practical experience of the state protectionism in shipping industry at the current stage of its development. The reasons of protectionism in maritime transport are considered and the analysis of the world fleet ownership and flags of registration is conducted. The comparative analysis of the Dutch and Norwegian tonnage tax regimes and other current tax incentives in the different countries is made. The advantages and shortcomings of protectionist measures in shipping industry from the macroeconomic and microeconomic points of view are analyzed. The results of research contains elements of novelty: the scientific representation of state protectionism in shipping industry gained further development by systematization of international experience of application of direct and indirect measures in shipping and allocation of the main trends of protectionism; the classification of protectionist measures in shipping industry is improved by the specification of the structure of indirect methods.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 21 Aug 2019 09:35:50 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1641769</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Cargo Preferences for U.S.-Flag Shipping</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/1604537</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Long-standing U.S. policy has treated the U.S.-flag international fleet as a naval auxiliary to be available in times of war or national emergency. When the United States is involved in an extended military conflict overseas, 90% or more of military cargoes are typically carried by ship. To support the U.S. merchant marine, Congress has required that “government-impelled” cargo sent overseas be carried on U.S.-flag ships. Government-impelled cargo (a.k.a. “preference cargo”) is government-owned cargo, such as military supplies and food aid, and any cargo that is somehow financed by the federal government, such as by the Export-Import Bank. While export shipments account for the vast bulk of government-impelled cargo, in 2008 Congress extended the law to require that state and local governments and private entities importing goods with federal financial assistance ship at least 50% of such cargo in U.S.-flag vessels. Regulations to implement that requirement have not been issued.  Historically, cargo preference law has been used to assure that a large proportion of government-impelled cargoes is shipped in privately owned U.S.-flag ships rather than in government-owned vessels such as those now controlled by the Military Sealift Command (MSC). Military cargo then, and more so now, accounts for the overwhelming bulk of preference cargoes. Since 1954, an agreement between U.S. government cabinet departments has restricted the size of the military-owned fleet and has required the military to turn first to the private fleet before using its own ships. The cost of employing U.S. citizens aboard U.S.-flag commercial vessels appears to be higher than the costs of employing the federal civilian mariners that crew government-owned ships.  It appears preference cargo now accounts for almost all of the revenues of the U.S.-flag international fleet. U.S.-flag ships do not appear competitive with foreign-flag ships in carrying the overwhelming bulk of exports and imports transacted in the private sector. However, Congress has directed that the U.S. government pay the additional cost of U.S.-flag shipping in order to maintain the U.S.-flag international fleet as a naval auxiliary to be available in times of war or national emergency. This cost may be influenced by the level of competition among U.S.- flag carriers bidding for preference cargoes and the procedures for determining “fair and reasonable rates.”  The needs of the commercial market increasingly have diverged from those of the military, as the trend toward highly specialized and larger ships in the commercial sector appears inconsistent with the military’s shipping requirements. However, the knowledge and skills of the mariners aboard U.S.-flag commercial ships are transferrable to manning a military reserve fleet of ships. In the 114th Congress, several disparate bills would have the effect of either increasing or decreasing the volume of preference cargo significantly. The bills involve the future of food-aid policy, the existence of the Export-Import Bank, and the level of operating subsidy provided to U.S.-flag carriers. The boom in domestic oil and gas production also has led to discussions in Congress about whether U.S.-flag tankers should be guaranteed a portion of the cargo if these products are exported. These issues are arising at a time when U.S.-flag operators face a potential decline in the amount of preference cargo due to overseas troop withdrawals and changes in food-aid policy]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 08 May 2019 15:32:35 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/1604537</guid>
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