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    <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <copyright>Copyright © 2026. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.</copyright>
    <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
    <managingEditor>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</managingEditor>
    <webMaster>tris-trb@nas.edu (Bill McLeod)</webMaster>
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      <title>Transport Research International Documentation (TRID)</title>
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    <item>
      <title>Vertical and horizontal fairness concerns in the ride-hailing platform with solo and carpool ride services</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2594370</link>
      <description><![CDATA[With the rapid growth of ride-hailing platforms, drivers have raised concerns about the platform’s commission rate and their compensation not aligning with their service efforts. In this paper, we investigate the impact of drivers’ fairness concerns on operational decisions within ride-hailing services. Specifically, we focus on two types of fairness issues: vertical fairness, which concerns the profit gap between the driver and the platform, and horizontal fairness, which concerns the profit disparity between the solo ride driver and the carpool ride driver. To examine the impact of fairness concerns, we analyze four scenarios: (1) when neither fairness concern is considered (NN), (2) when only the vertical fairness concern is considered (NV), (3) when only the horizontal fairness concern is considered (HN), and (4) when both fairness concerns are considered (HV). Each of these scenarios is modeled as a Stackelberg game, where we examine the interactions between the platform and drivers under different fairness conditions. Our analysis reveals that Vertical fairness effect, arising from the vertical fairness concern, reduces the ride-hailing platform’s profit. In contrast, Horizontal fairness effect, stemming from the horizontal fairness concern, increases the platform’s profit. Additionally, we find that the vertical fairness effect is greater than the horizontal fairness effect when the solo ride service price is sufficiently low, the customer’s inconvenience cost for taking a carpool service is low, or the commission rate between the platform and drivers is high enough. Based on these insights, we provide managerial implications for ride-hailing platform operators on how to optimize platform operations when drivers’ fairness concerns are taken into account.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Wed, 11 Mar 2026 14:44:02 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2594370</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Linear carrot-and-stick: Compensation design with ordering delegation and demand updating</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2659480</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Delegating ordering to the salesforce leverages local market knowledge but complicates incentive alignment. Motivated by data from a major Amazon apparel seller, we study a Linear Carrot-and-Stick (LCS) scheme that couples a sales commission (“carrot”) with a leftover inventory penalty (“stick”). Using weekly SKU-level transaction data from June 2017 to May 2019, we observe that the adoption of LCS decreased the firm’s total shipments and sales relative to the prior Linear Pure-Commission Scheme (LPS). To interpret these patterns and offer design guidance, we develop a two-period principal-agent model in which the salesperson updates demand forecasts based on realized outcomes and also chooses the effort and places orders. We show that the optimal commission reflects the salesperson’s ability to convert effort into sales, while the penalty ratio balances overstocking liabilities with understocking opportunity costs, akin to the critical ratio in the newsvendor problem. To ensure that the salesforce utility remains competitive despite inventory penalties, we examine a utility protection mechanism, finding that higher values for both the components, carrot and stick, are essential for retaining a valuable person who faces attractive employment alternatives. A numerical study of the partner’s top-selling SKUs indicates that LCS can deliver a win-win outcome, improving both firm profitability and salesperson motivation compared to LPS. We further extend the analysis to information asymmetry, target-based demand updating, Bayesian demand updating, and a two-product setting, all of which widely confirm the robustness of our findings.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 10 Mar 2026 09:57:54 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2659480</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Total Rewards for Airport Sponsor Employees</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2672717</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This report presents the state of practice regarding airport total rewards programs that help recruit and retain individuals who are essential to keeping an airport running, with a focus on frontline and supervisory staff. This synthesis includes information on challenges and opportunities that airports have found when developing or revising total rewards, and information on ways airports recruit and retain frontline and supervisory employees using total rewards. Total rewards include health benefits, well-being programs, learning and development, and recognition programs, as well as compensation. Under ACRP Project 11-03/Topic S06-09, “Total Rewards for Airport Sponsor Employees,” Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University was asked to synthesize information to describe total rewards that airport sponsors use to attract and retain frontline and supervisory employees. Information used in this study was obtained through a literature review, a survey of airports, and interviews to develop case examples. Chapter 4 provides six case examples that highlight total rewards programs from airports with different governance structures, including airports governed by a port authority, airport authority, city, and county.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 22 Feb 2026 14:57:19 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2672717</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Enhancing Safety and Well Being of Aging Workforce within the Transportation Sector: An Association Rule Data Mining Approach for Understanding Causes and Impacts of Worker Compensation Claims</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2576309</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Safety within the transportation sector has long been a concern for researchers and industry stakeholders. High injury rates in the transportation sector and an increase in expenditure toward transportation projects, state departments of transportation put in place key performance indicators aiming for a safer workforce. To do so, root causes of safety incidents must be studied to help prevent/mitigate future incidents. Previous studies addressed this using various analytical approaches; however, they have either failed to account for both internal and external factors, only accounted for one factor at a time affecting safety, or conducted a methodology requiring extensive, confidential data that is difficult to retrieve. The goal is to decipher combinations of internal and external reasons behind occupational injuries in the transportation sector by utilizing top-level data without the need to access detailed confidential records. This was accomplished through a systematic methodological approach, employing a funneled multiple linear regression (MLR), that offered a novel way of evaluating the influence of different variable combinations on safety outcomes. The methodology was composed of (1) identifying independent and dependent variables from publicly available data by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, (2) studying multicollinearity, (3) conducting feature selection, and (4) applying a funneled MLR approach to examine all possible variable combinations. The findings included 5 high-performing MLR models composed of critical combinations of variables impacting safety incidents in the transportation sector. The contribution of this research is providing actionable insights for developing targeted interventions aimed at mitigating safety risks and enhancing workplace safety within the transportation sector.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 08 Aug 2025 08:50:11 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2576309</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Transportation Operations Center Operator Retention and Workload Mitigation Strategies</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2559170</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This study investigated strategies to mitigate the workload for and improve the retention of operators at the Virginia Department of Transportation’s (VDOT) Transportation Operations Centers (TOCs). The research involved a literature review, interviews with other state departments of transportation, observations of VDOT TOC operations, and interviews with TOC operators and managers. The study found that data fusion tools were not a significant need for operators, but challenges existed with data output systems. Operator salaries were found to be potentially uncompetitive compared with similar industries. Key factors affecting retention included compensation, career growth opportunities, work-life balance, and the lack of acknowledgment of contract employees’ roles by the larger department. Recommendations include formalizing a process for operators to report software issues, implementing findings from this study in future staffing contracts, and enhancing the prestige of performance awards. The study concludes that addressing these issues could improve operator morale, reduce turnover, and ultimately enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of TOC operations.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sun, 01 Jun 2025 18:15:43 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2559170</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Structural Analysis of Labour Costs for the Construction of Buildings and Their Structural Elements</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2407786</link>
      <description><![CDATA[The total labor costs for the construction of buildings or their structural elements include the labor costs of all categories of workers (including the management of construction production) involved in the creation of construction products from the start of preparatory work to the putting the object into operation. These include the labor costs of workers of various specialties and qualifications engaged in the performance of the entire complex of basic construction work and controlling of machines and mechanisms, auxiliary work involved in relocation, maintenance and repair of construction equipment, arrangement of the infrastructure of a construction site, engineering and technical workers, service staff and employees of the management apparatus. The systematization of all types of labor costs and their structural analysis makes it possible to identify promising segments for the implementation of measures to reduce the corresponding labor costs, which most significantly affect the reduction of total labor costs for the construction of buildings.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 25 Mar 2025 09:28:07 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2407786</guid>
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    <item>
      <title>Algorithm for Evaluating the Effective Methods of Staff Organization</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2408086</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Formation of a new remuneration transport ideology makes new approaches to the importance and size of the tariff rate as the main regulator of the growth of professional development and growth of labor productivity. It is necessary to form a new ideology of remuneration in the company that led to the formation of a new wage system as the primary regulator of the growth of labor productivity and economic efficiency of the company as a whole, and to revive the function of wages. The objectivity of labor potential evaluation is an extremely difficult question both for workers and evaluators. There is a danger that evaluation will be used only as a bureaucratic method and will give managers an opportunity to make any decision they want. In this case, it is possible to use a performance assessment tool that reflects multiple points of view - a manager, foreman, general director of an enterprise or a higher-level manager. To ensure a qualitative measurement of labor potential, there must be sufficient criteria to eliminate the possibility of a lack of factors when considering the most important properties of its influence on the results of the enterprise. Moreover, all the criteria should be weighed to minimize the mispresentation, which happens because of non-conforming or unacceptable rate. After the authors identify the amount of criteria which will be used for workers potential evaluation, it will be necessary to develop credible and reliable rating scales.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Fri, 21 Mar 2025 16:02:27 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2408086</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The relationships between financial performance and driver compensation and safety outcomes in the trucking industry: a systematic review</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2519038</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Heavy trucks largely contribute to road fatalities and injuries with most of the severely injured and killed being road users other than heavy truck occupants. Research has shown that the causes of truck crashes have economic roots, including high levels of competition creating economic pressure that could increase the likelihood of carriers reducing safety investments and adopting payment practices that encourage truck drivers to drive faster and longer than legally required. With a large body of research on safety policies and payment practices in the heavy trucking industry, there is a strong need to comprehensively understand the relationships between economic pressure in terms of truck company financial performance and driver compensation, and safety outcomes and the factors influencing the relationships. This paper presents a systematic review of the literature to address this important gap in the literature. The review identified 43 English-language articles published between 1988 and 2024. There is a general consensus in these articles that paying truck drivers based on the amount of work performed is associated with poorer safety outcomes than paying them based on the amount of time worked. In contrast, higher pay levels and payments for non-driving tasks positively influence safety outcomes. Regarding truck company financial performance, most of the studies reported a positive influence on safety outcomes. This review highlights the strengths and limitations of the methodologies of existing studies and proposes areas for future research.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 20 Mar 2025 13:25:00 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2519038</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>A systematic review of incentive schemes and their implications for truck driver safety performance</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2465078</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This systematic review investigates the effects of monetary and non-monetary incentive schemes on the safety performance of truck drivers, a critical concern within the road freight industry. The review analyzes 18 studies and dissects the impact of compensation levels, compensation methods, and non-monetary benefits on drivers’ safety behaviors. The findings show that, in general, higher levels of compensation, both through selection and incentive effects, enhance safety performance by attracting more skilled drivers and incentivizing adherence to safety protocols. However, the structure of these compensations, particularly piece-rate wages, and payment for non-driving hours, reveals a double-edged sword; while incentivizing productivity, they inadvertently promote unsafe driving behaviors such as excessive speeding and insufficient rest due to economic pressures. Conversely, non-monetary incentives, though under-researched, show potential for improving safety outcomes by enhancing job satisfaction and work environment quality. This review highlights the need for future research on safety incentives to evaluate the full extent of the intersection between incentives, safety culture, and working conditions. It advocates for holistic compensation strategies that foster a safety culture in the trucking industry, marking a new direction for improving driver behavior.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 30 Dec 2024 09:57:33 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2465078</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Pay and Working Conditions in the Long-Distance Truck and Bus Industries: Assessing for Effects on Driver Safety and Retention</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2441686</link>
      <description><![CDATA[This Consensus Study Report considers how compensation methods and working conditions in the long-distance for-hire trucking and intercity bus industries may affect the safety performance and retention of industry drivers. To conduct the study, the National Academies appointed an interdisciplinary committee whose members possess expertise in commercial motor carrier operations, safety regulation, transportation economics, statistics, freight planning, and transportation logistics. The report is organized into seven chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction. Chapter 2 provides background on the long-distance for-hire truckload (TL) sector and its operations and describes the truck driver workforce. It also describes the regulatory environment for the long-distance trucking industry by providing an overview of the main bodies of pertinent federal regulations governing safety and labor standards. Chapter 3 also provides background by describing the types of compensation used in the long-distance TL sector, distinguishing between piece rate forms of compensation and non-piece rate forms. The chapter also describes the work requirements and conditions experienced by drivers in the long-distance TL sector. Chapter 4 focuses on driver retention in the long-distance TL sector and explains the role that compensation methods, working conditions, and complex economic forces can have on the rates of driver retention and turnover. Chapter 5 reviews the research and empirical evidence about how compensation methods, non-wage rewards, and work conditions can affect safety in the long-distance TL sector. Issues associated with driver compensation, safety, and retention in the intercity bus industry are considered in Chapter 6, albeit to only a limited degree because of a dearth of information. Chapter 7 summarizes the key conclusions from the study and contains the committee’s recommendations pertaining to follow-on research. This chapter concludes with ideas for research and data collection that the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) could pursue to further the recommendations.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 19 Oct 2024 16:17:37 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2441686</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The Intersection Between Health Care Costs and Long Work Hours in the Transport Sector</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2434301</link>
      <description><![CDATA[According to the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), investigations conducted between 2013 and 2019 revealed that fatigue was a probable cause, contributing factor, or finding in 12% of accidents across all modes of transportation. Even preceding this finding, rail safety has focused on fatigue and long work hours for decades due to concerns that fatigued workers may be more prone to accidents, injuries, near misses, and rule violations as expressed by labor, management, and government regulators. However, rail safety has improved steadily and a direct relationship between hours worked and the current state of commuter rail safety performance remains to be convincingly demonstrated. Moreover, the impetus to make changes in the existing operating rules and practices is also strongly influenced by operational realities and financial considerations. Consequently, demonstrating a link between operator fatigue, safety performance, and financial considerations would be beneficial in driving decision-making in commuter rail operations. The present study is designed to explore the possibility of a relationship between hours worked and the cost of worker compensation claims.

The health effects of long work hours have been well documented. For example, Yusaku (2023) found that Japanese workers engaged in overtime had a significantly higher rate of hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), which is a severe life-threatening disease with high mortality. Le et al. (2022) also concluded that working more than 60 hours per week leads to higher stress, burnout, and poorer health. Similarly, data from a longitudinal study in the UK found that working 55 hours/week or more was significantly related to more depressive symptoms among women while working weekends related to more depressive symptoms for both genders. Obesity is also related to long work hours (Solovieva et al., 2013).

Research over the past 40 years has slowly but steadily consistently documented an association between long work hours and occupational injury rates. Finally, Dembe (2005), in perhaps the best study of this topic, using the data from 10,793 Americans participating in a longitudinal survey evaluating workers' work schedules and occurrence of occupational injury estimated that the relative risk of long working hours per day was associated with a 61% higher injury hazard rate compared to jobs without overtime. Moreover, working at least 12 hours per day was associated with a 37% increased hazard rate, and working at least 60 hours per week was associated with a 23% increased hazard rate. The authors concluded that a strong dose-response effect was found such that the injury rate rose in direct relation to the number of hours worked per day.

The National Safety Council estimates that the number of lost days in the transportation industry over the past ten years has risen from $12.15 million dollars to over $15 million dollars. (NSC, 2023) The number of persons who have lost more than 31 days due to workplace injury has also increased similarly. These are conservative estimates that do not reflect the full cost of damage to equipment, loss of function, and other costs. There is no data available that shows the relationship between long work hours and the costs of occupational injuries in the transportation industry. The present study seeks to fill this gap by investigating the data from a major metropolitan area transit agency.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Sat, 28 Sep 2024 07:53:24 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2434301</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Workers’ compensation injuries in aviation manufacturing in the state of Kansas, 2014–2022</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2425794</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Workers’ compensation injuries entail burdensome financial and social costs. This study’s objective was to describe cost and frequency of workplace injuries in aviation manufacturing in the state of Kansas using workers’ compensation data. Manufacturing incurs more workers’ compensation claims in Kansas than any other industry, and aviation contributes more of those claims than any other sub sector. Workers’ compensation insurance and reporting are required in the state of Kansas. Data were provided by the Kansas Department of Labor (KDOL) and included all closed workers’ compensation claims entailing indemnity and medical costs filed in the state from 2014 to 2022. Cost of claim data were normalized to 2022 U.S. dollars and data were analyzed as a function of percentage and claim cost by body part, type of injury, cause of injury, specific musculoskeletal disorder type, and as a function of age and gender injury rates. Aviation claims entailed a median total cost of $26,941 and represented 8% of all closed claims filed in the state from 2014 to 2022. The grand total direct cost over the nine-year period was $75,404,147. Medical costs comprised 48.6% of all costs, indemnity 45.0%, and legal 6.4%. The most frequently injured body part was the hand/wrist (35.9%) followed by the shoulder (20.6%), and the most expensive body parts were related to the back. Overexertion (38.6%) was the most common cause followed by repetitive motion (22.8%). Work-related musculoskeletal disorders were the most common type accounting for 67.4% of all claims. Men and workers aged 55–64 incurred slightly higher claim rates than average. A sharp decrease in number of claims closed in 2021 coincided with production shutdowns the previous year related to the Covid-19 pandemic and design issues. Aviation manufacturing is a key industry in Kansas and this study is the first known to describe costs and frequencies of workplace injuries in the sector using workers’ compensation data. This guide to the most problematic and costly injuries in aviation manufacturing helps practitioners prioritize prevention strategies to most effectively reduce workplace injury and helps safety and health practitioners in prioritizing prevention efforts to reduce the most severe and costly aviation manufacturing injuries and illnesses. It also brings attention to some special considerations when working with safety data from 2020 to 2022 related to the Covid-19 pandemic.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Mon, 16 Sep 2024 16:51:24 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2425794</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>Data-Driven Compensation Models for Enhanced Efficiency and Service Quality at License Plate Agencies</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2414051</link>
      <description><![CDATA[In the state of North Carolina, a network of 128 License Plate Agencies (LPAs) are vital community hubs for vehicle titling and registration services, serving as critical points of communication between citizens and the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV). These LPAs offer diverse services ranging from title work and registration to wildlife services and commercial vehicle in different parts of North Carolina and are indispensable due to NCDMV's continued use of paper titles.  However, the efficient operation of these LPAs while maintaining exceptional customer service has been a challenge. The current compensation model, governed by NCGS 20-63(h), rewards LPAs with payments per transaction, inadvertently incentivizing faster transactions over quality of service.
The overarching goal of this study is to enhance customer service quality and optimize transactional efficiency within LPAs by designing innovative tiered compensation models leveraging data-driven approaches. This research goal is driven by three core needs: enhancing customer service, ensuring the financial sustainability of LPAs, and aligning with the evolving technological landscape of digital services while preserving the crucial role of LPAs in our communities. This goal will be achieved through five tasks: (a) reviewing compensation models, (b) assessing stakeholder needs through data collection and conducting data-driven analyses of current LPA operations, (c) developing innovative compensation models with contract terms and incentives and performing detailed cost-benefit analysis, (d) conducting case studies and feedback for validation, and (d) facilitating technology transfer. 
The project's impact is threefold: first, it aims to reshape LPAs' service delivery approach, prioritizing customer satisfaction and financial sustainability. Second, it integrates insights from diverse fields, including compensation models, queuing theory, and multi-stakeholder analysis, into designing tier-specific compensation models. Lastly, the project is immediately relevant, given the rising customer complaints, reduced compensations, and the shift towards online services. The project is highly significant and time-critical for the state, as it will provide insights for improving LPA functions through stakeholder analysis and data-driven approaches. This, in turn, will inform future contracts and policy decisions, potentially serving as a model for other states. The anticipated research products include comprehensive reports, documentation of proposed compensation models, stakeholder insights, guidelines on benefit and cost evaluation of proposed models, and knowledge dissemination materials, all geared toward improving LPAs' operations and customer service. These products along with preliminary implementation plan will enable the North Carolina Department of Transportation (NCDOT) and NCDMV to ensure financial sustainability for LPAs, adapt to evolving technological landscape, and ultimately deliver great customer service (NCDOT’s Goal #2)
]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 08 Aug 2024 10:57:49 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2414051</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>NJDOT Compensation Scan and Retention Study</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2384871</link>
      <description><![CDATA[With noticeable staff turnover in certain employment classifications, New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) engaged Cambridge Systematics (CS) to conduct the Compensation Scan and Retention Study. This scope of work is focused on researching and collecting information on compensation and retention of employees utilized by municipalities and county transportation agencies, private transportation agencies and state departments of transportation (DOTs) to identify current and best practices related to employee compensation for the NJDOT employment series: Automotive Mechanic, Highway Operations Technician, and Electrical Mechanic. The study findings aim to ensure that the Department’s practices and procedures for compensation and general employment practices are aligned and competitive with nearby agencies, as well as nationally. The objective of this research is primarily to better understand compensation for the positions of interest in order to support and provide proper justification for internal adjustments]]></description>
      <pubDate>Thu, 06 Jun 2024 15:31:42 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2384871</guid>
    </item>
    <item>
      <title>The Empirical Study of Employee Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment's Impact on the Contextual Performance in Logistics Enterprises</title>
      <link>https://trid.trb.org/View/2281729</link>
      <description><![CDATA[On the basis of empirical study of the logistics of 13 enterprises in Sichuan Province, this paper has studied the impact of job satisfaction and organizational commitment on contextual performance. The results demonstrated that the higher the pay satisfaction is, the more obvious the staffs' interpersonal facility, (the coefficient is 0.713); the higher normative commitment is, the more obvious interpersonal facility, (the coefficient is 0.686); job dedication is not only influenced by pay satisfaction and supervisor satisfaction (path coefficients is 0.658 and 0.669 respectively), but also by the continuing commitment and normative commitment (path coefficients is 0.717 and 0.682 respectively). On the basis of these findings, a few valuable suggestions surface for the improvement of contextual performance in enterprise logistics.]]></description>
      <pubDate>Tue, 19 Mar 2024 15:17:42 GMT</pubDate>
      <guid>https://trid.trb.org/View/2281729</guid>
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